THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


.—,... 
<;m9jBeiHBiHfflaillH^  J. 


A  TEXTBOOK 


ON 


INTERNATIONAL  CORRESPONDENCE  SCHOOLS 

SCRANTON,  PA. 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING 
FREEHAND  DRAWING 
HISTORIC  ORNAMENT 


SCRANTON 

INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  CO. 
A-2 


4900 


Copyright,  1901,   by   INTERNATIONAL    TEXTBOOK  COMPANY,  under   the  title    of 
THE  ELEMENTS  OF  ORNAMENTAL  DESIGN. 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 


Geometrical  Drawing:   Copyright,  1893,  1894,  1896,  1897,  1898,  1899,  1900,  1901,  by  THE 

COLLIERY  ENGINEER  COMPANY. 

Freehand  Drawing  :  Copyright,  1900,  by  THE  COLLIERY  ENGINEER  COMPANY. 
Historic  Ornament:  Copyright,  1900,  by  THE  COLLIERY  ENGINEER  COMPANY. 


All  rights  reserved. 


dl 
Press  of  EATON  &  MAINS 

NEW   YORK 


Art 
Library 

-*//*: 
/G/o 


AV 

PRE  FAC E 


All  the  Instruction  and  Question  Papers  of  our  Orna- 
mental Design  Course  are  contained  in  two  volumes  and  the 
accompanying'  portfolio,  in  which  will  be  found  facsimiles 
of  all  the  drawing  plates  that  the  student  is  required  to 
execute.  These  volumes  and  portfolio  together  form  a  com- 
prehensive treatise  on  the  theory  of  ornamental  design,  and 
can  be  used  as  a  work  of  reference  by  the  practical  designer 
in  the  solution  of  the  numerous  problems  that  confront  him 
in  his  every -day  work. 

The  geometrical  considerations  that  lie  at  the  foundation 
of  all  good  designs,  the  proper  understanding  of  historic 
style  and  detail,  the  origin  and  influence  of  certain  ele- 
mentary forms,  the  practical  considerations  that  govern  the 
final  arrangement  of  all  designs,  and  the  influence  of  mate- 
rial and  the  ultimate  purpose  are  all  dwelt  upon  in  detail  in 
this  volume,  and  practical  examples  of  them  are  shown  in 
the  accompanying  portfolio  of  plates. 

The  method  of  numbering  the  pages,  cuts,  articles,  etc. 
is  such  that  each  paper  and  part  is  complete  in  itself;  hence, 
in  order  to  make  the  indexes  intelligible  it  is  necessary  to 
give  each  paper  and  part  a  number.  This  number  is  placed 
at  the  top  of  each  page  on  the  headline  opposite  the  page 
number;  and  to  distinguish  it  from  the  page  number  it  is 
preceded  by  the  printer's  section  mark  (§).  Consequently  a 
reference  such  as  §  4,  page  29,  would  be  readily  found  as 
follows:  look  along  the  inside  edges  of  the  headlines  until 
§  4  is  found,  and  then  through  §  4  until  page  29  is  found. 

iii 


1418285 


IV 


PREFACE. 


The  Examination  Questions  are  divided  into  sections, 
which  have  been  given  the  same  section  numbers  as  the 
Instruction  Papers  to  which  they  belong  and  are  grouped 
together  at  the  end  of  the  volumes  containing  the  Instruction 
Papers  to  which  they  refer.  The  papers  on  Geometrical 
Drawing,  Freehand  Drawing,  and  Historic  Ornamental 
Drawing  are  not  accompanied  by  Question  Papers. 

The  portfolio  contains  copies  of  all  the  plates  sent  to 
students  in  this  Course. 

INTERNATIONAL  CORRESPONDENCE  SCHOOLS. 


CONTENTS. 

GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  Section.     Page, 

Instruments  and  Materials 

Lettering 

Plates  l 

% 

FREEHAND  DRAWING. 

Introduction 

The  Plate  Exercises    . 

Linear  Elements 

Surfaces  and  Solids 

Natural  Leaves 2 

Flowers  and  Conventionalized  Leaves     . 

Brush  Work 

Applied  Design 

HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 

Introduction 

Ancient  Ornament 

Egyptian  Ornament 

Assyrian  Ornament 

Classic  Ornament 

Greek  Ornament 

Etruscan  Ornament 

Greco-Roman  Ornament 

The  Five  Orders  of  Architecture  ...       -4 

v 


vi  CONTENTS. 

HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. — Continued.  Section.     Page. 

The  Greek  Orders 4  2 

The  Roman  Orders 4  17 

Byzantine  Ornament 4  39 

Asiatic  Ornament 4  59 

Chinese  and  Japanese  Ornament    ...  4  59 

Indian  Ornament 4  64 

Arabian  Ornament 4  69 

Turkish  Ornament 4  76 

Persian  Ornament 4  78 

Moorish  Ornament 4  80 

Western  Art 4  95 

Celtic  Ornament 4  95 

Gothic  Ornament 4  99 

Renaissance  Art '5  1 

Italian  Renaissance 5  4 

French  Renaissance 5  24 

German  and  English  Renaissance       .     .  5  51 

Conclusion 5  56 

Historic  Lettering 5  61 

Antique  Egyptian  Alphabet      ....  5  63 

Light  Antique  Egyptian  Alphabet     .     .  5  65 

Heavy  Antique  Egyptian  Alphabet   .     .  5  69 

Medieval  Roman  Alphabet 5  69 

Light      and      Heavy      French      Roman 

Alphabet .5  71 

Gothic  Alphabet 5  75 

Old  English  Alphabet 5  79 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXAMPLES.  Section. 

Historic  Ornament 3 

Historic  Ornament  (Continued) 4 

Historic  Ornament  (Continued) 5 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


INSTRUMENTS  AND  MATERIALS. 

1.  A  drawing  is  a  representation  of  objects  on  a  plane 
surface  by  means  of  lines  or  lines  and  shades.     When  done 
by  the  use  of  free  hand  only,  it  is  called  freehand  drawing 
or  sketching;  when  instruments  are  used,  so  that  greater 
exactness  may  be  obtained,  it  is  called  instrumental,  or 
mechanical,  drawing. 

2.  All  of   the  instruments  and   materials   required   for 
the   courses  in   drawing  are   mentioned   in    the   following 
descriptions: 

The  drawing  board  should  be  made  of  well-seasoned, 
straight-grained  pine,  the  grain  running  lengthwise.  For 
this  course,  the  student  will  need  a  board  of  the  following 
dimensions:  length  over  all,  22 \  inches;  width,  1G£  inches. 

The  drawing  board  illustrated  in  Fig.  1  is  the  one  furnished 
in  our  students'  drawing  outfits  and  can  be  fully  recom- 
mended as  possessing  the  qualities  a  good  and  accurate  board 
should  have.  It  is  made  of  several  pieces  of  pine  wood  glued 
together  to  the  required  width  of  the  board.  A  pair  of  hard- 
wood cleats  is  screwed  to  the  back  of  the  board,  the  screws 
passing  through  the  cleats  in  oblong  slots  with  iron  bushings, 
which  allow  the  screws  to  move  freely  when  drawn  by  the 
contraction  and  expansion  of  the  board.  Grooves  are  cut 
through  half  the  thickness  of  the  board  over  the  entire  back 
side.  These  grooves  take  the  transverse  resistance  out  of 

§1 

For  notice  of  the  copyright,  see  page  immediately  following  the  title  page. 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING, 


the  wood  and  allow  it  to  be  controlled  by  the  cleats,  at  the 
same  time  leaving  the  longitudinal  strength  nearly  unim- 
paired. In  order  to  provide  a  perfectly  smooth  working 


FIG.  1. 


edge,  for  the  head  of  the  T  square  to  slide  against,  a  strip 
of  hard  wood  is  let  into  the  short  edges  of  the  board,  and  is 
sawed  through  in  several  places,  in  order  to  allow  for  the 
contraction  and  expansion  of  the  board.  The  cleats  also 
raise  the  board  from  the  table,  thus  making  it  easier  to 


change  the  position  of  the  board.  When  in  use  the  board  is 
placed  so  that  one  of  the  short  edges  is  at  the  left  of  the 
draftsman,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

3.  The  T  square  is  used  for  drawing  horizontal  straight 
lines.  The  head  A  is  placed  against  the  left-hand  edge  of 
the  board,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  upper  edge  C  of  the 
blade  />  is  brought  very  near  to  the  point  through  which  it 
is  desired  to  pass  a  line,  so  that  the  straight  edge  C  of  the 
blade  may  be  used  as  a  guide  for  the  pen  or  pencil.  It  is 
evident  that  all  lines  drawn  in  this  manner  will  be  parallel. 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


Vertical  lines  are  drawn  by  means  of  triangles.  The  tri- 
angles most  generally  used  are  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  4,  each 
of  which  has  one  right  angle.  The  triangle  shown  in  Fig.  3 


FIG.  3. 


FIG.  4. 


has  two  angles  of  45°  each,  and  that  in  Fig.  4  one  of  60°  and 
one  of  30°.  They  are  called  45°  and  60°  triangles,  respect- 
ively. To  draw  a  vertical  line,  place  the  T  square  in  posi- 
tion to  draw  a  horizontal 
line,  and  lay  the  triangle 
against  it,  so  as  to  form  a 
right  angle.  Hold  both 
T  square  and  triangle 
J  lightly  with  the  left  hand, 
so  as  to  keep  them  from 
slipping,  and  draw  the  line 
with  the  pen  or  pencil  held 
in  the  right  hand,  and 
against  the  edge  of  the  triangle.  Fig.  5  shows  the  tri- 
angles and  T  square  in  position. 

4.  For  drawing  parallel  lines  that  are  neither  vertical  nor 
horizontal,  the  simplest  and  best  way,  when  the  lines  are 
near  together,  is  to  place  one  edge  of  a  triangle,  as  ab, 
Fig.  6,  on  the  given  line  c  d,  and  lay  the  other  triangle,  as  /?, 


FIG.  5. 


4  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  §  1 

against  one  of  the  two  edges,  holding  it  fast  with  the  left 
hand;  then  move  the  triangle  A  along  the  edge  of  B.  The 
edge  a  b  will  be  parallel  to  the  line  c  d  ;  and  when  the  edge 
a  b  reaches  the  pointy,  through  which  it  is  desired  to  draw 
the  parallel  line,  hold  both  triangles  stationary  with  the  left 


hand,  and  draw  the  line  ef  by  passing  the  pencil  along  the 
edge  a  b.  Should  the  triangle  A  extend  too  far  beyond  the 
edge  of  the  triangle  B  after  a  number  of  lines  have  been 
drawn,  hold  A  stationary  with  the  left  hand  and  shift  B 
along  the  edge  of  A  with  the  right  hand,  and  then  proceed 
as  before. 

5.  A  line  may  be  drawn  at  right  angles  to  another  line 
which  is  neither  vertical  nor  horizontal,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  7. 
Let  c  d  be  the  given  line  (shown  at  the  left-hand  side). 
Place  one  of  the  shorter  edges,  as  a  b,  of  the  triangle  B  so 
that  it  will  coincide  with  the  line  cd\  then,  keeping  the 
triangle  in  this  position,  place  the  triangle  A  so  that  its  long 
edge  will  come  against  the  long  edge  of  B.  Now,  holding 
A  securely  in  place  with  the  left  hand,  slide  B  along  the 
edge  of  A  with  the  right  hand,  when  the  lines  //  i,  m  n,  etc. 
may  be  drawn  perpendicular  to  c  d  along  the  edge  bfot  the 
triangle  B.  The  dotted  lines  show  the  position  of  the  tri- 
angle B  when  moved  along  the  edge  of  A. 


I 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


6.  The  right-hand  portion  of  Fig.  7  shows  another 
method  of  accomplishing  the  same  result,  and  illustrates 
how  the  triangles  may  be  used  for  drawing  a  rectangular 
figure,  when  the  sides  of  the  figure  make  an  angle  with 
the  T  square  such  that  the  latter  cannot  be  used. 

Let  the  side  c  d  of  the  figure  be  given.  Place  the  long 
side  of  the  triangle  B  so  as  to  coincide  with  the  line  c  d, 
and  bring  the  triangle  A  into  position  against  the  lower 
side  of  B,  as  shown.  Now,  holding  the  triangle  A  in 
place  with  the  left  hand,  revolve  B  so  that  its  other 


FIG.  7. 

short  edge  will  rest  against  the  long  edge  of  A,  as  shown 
in  the  dotted  position  at  B'.  The  parallel  lines  c  e  and 
df  may  now  be  drawn  through  the  points  c  and  d  by 
sliding  the  triangle  B  on  the  triangle  A,  as  described  in 
connection  with  Fig.  6.  Measure  off  the  required  width 
of  the  figure  on  the  line  c  e,  reverse  the  triangle  />'  again 
to  its  original  position,  still  holding  the  triangle  A  in  a 
fixed  position  with  the  left  hand,  and  slide  B  upon  A 
until  the  long  edge  of  B  passes  through  c.  Draw  the 
line  ef  through  the  point  e,  and  cf  will  be  parallel  to  cd. 
The  student  should  practice  with  his  triangles  before 
beginning  drawing. 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING 


7.  The  compasses,  next  to  the  T  square  and  triangles, 
are  used  more  than  any  other  instrument.  A  pencil  and 
pen  point  are  provided,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8,  either  of  which 
may  be  inserted  into  a  socket  in  one  leg  of  the  instrument, 
for  the  drawing  of  circles  in  pencil  or  ink.  The  other  leg  is 
fitted  with  a  needle  point,  which  acts  as  the  center  about 
which  the  circle  is  drawn.  In  all  good  instruments,  the 

needle  point  itself  is  a  separate 
piece  of  round  steel  wire,  held 
in  place  in  a  socket  provided 
at  the  end  of  the  leg.  The  wire 
should  have  a  square  shoulder 
at  its  lower  end,  below  which  a 
fine,  needle-like  point  projects. 
The  lengthening  bar,  also 
shown  in  the  figure,  is  used  to 
extend  the  leg  carrying  the 
pen  and  the  pencil  points  when 
circles  of  large  radii  are  to  be 
drawn. 

The  joint  at  the  top  of  the 
compasses  should  hold  the  legs 
firmly  in  any  position,  and  at 
the  same  time  should  permit 
their  being  opened  or  closed 
with  one  hand.  The  joint  may 
be  tightened  or  loosened  by 
means  of  a  screwdriver  or 
wrench,  which  accompanies  the 
compasses. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  Fig.  8  that  each  leg  of  the  compasses 
is  jointed;  this  is  done  so  that  the  compass  points  may 
always  be  kept  perpendicular  to  the  paper  when  drawing 
circles,  as  in  Fig.  11. 

The  style  of  compasses  shown  in  Fig.  8  have  what  is 
called  a  tongue  joint,  in  which  the  head  of  one  leg  has  a 
tongue,  generally  of  steel,  which  moves  between  two  lugs 
on  the  other  leg.  Another  common  style  of  joint  is  the 


§  1  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  7 

pivot  joint  in  which  the  head  of  each  leg  is  shaped  like  a 
disk  and  the  two  disks  are  held  together  in  a  fork-shaped 
brace  either  by  means  of  two  pivot  screws  or  by  one  screw 
penetrating  both  disks.  The  brace  that  forms  a  part  of  this 


FIG.  9. 

joint  is  generally  provided  with  a  handle,  as  the  shape  of 
the  joint  makes  it  rather  awkward  to  hold  the  compasses  by 
the  head  as  is  usual  with  instruments  provided  with  tongue 
joints.  In  Fig.  9  is  shown  a  common  style  of  pivot  joint. 

8.  The  following  suggestions  for  handling  the  compasses 
should  be  carefully  observed  by  those  who  are  beginning  the 
subject  of  mechanical  drawing.  Any  draftsman  who  handles 
his  instruments  awkwardly  will  create  a  bad  impression,  no 
matter  how  good  a  workman  he  may  be.  The  tendency  of 


FIG.  10. 


all  beginners  is  to  use  both  hands  for  operating  the  com- 
passes. This  is  to  be  avoided.  The  student  should  learn 
at  the  start  to  open  and  close  them  with  one  hand,  holding 
them  as  shown  in  Fig.  10,  with  the  needle-point  leg  resting 


8  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  §  1 

between  the  thumb  and  fourth  finger,  and  the  other  leg 
between  the  middle  and  forefinger.  When  drawing  cir- 
cles, hold  the  compasses  lightly  at  the  top  between  the 
thumb  and  forefinger,  or  thumb,  forefinger,  and  middle 
finger,  as  in  Fig.  11.  Another  case  where  both  hands 
should  not  be  used  is  in  locating  the  needle  point  at  a  point 
on  the  drawing  about  which  the  circle  is  to  be  drawn,  unless 
the  left  hand  is  used  merely  to  steady  the  needle  point. 


TIG.  11. 

Hold  the  compasses  as  shown  in  Fig.  10,  and  incline  them 
until  the  tinder  side  of  the  hand  rests  upon  the  paper.  This 
will  steady  the  hand  so  that  the  needle  point  can  be  brought 
to  exactly  the  right  place  on  the  drawing.  Having  placed 
the  needle  at  the  desired  point,  and  with  it  still  resting 
on  the  paper,  the  pen  or  pencil  point  may  be  moved  out 
or  in  to  any  desired  radius,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  10. 
When  the  lengthening  bar  is  used,  both  hands  must  be 
employed. 


§  1  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  9 

9.  The  compasses  must  be  handled  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  needle  point  will  not  dig  large  holes  in  the  paper.     Keep 
the  needle  point  adjusted  so  that  it  will  be  perpendicular  to 
the  paper,  when  drawing  circles,  and  do  not  bear  upon  it.    A 
slight  pressure  will  be  necessary  on  the  pen  or  pencil  point, 
but  not  on  the  needle  point. 

10.  The  dividers,  shown  in  Figs.  9  and  12,  are  used  for 
laying  off  distances  upon  a  drawing,  or  for  dividing  straight 
lines  or  circles  into  parts.     The  points  of  the  dividers  should 
be  very  sharp,  so  that  they  will  not  punch  holes  in  the  paper 
larger  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  be  seen.     Compasses 
are    sometimes    furnished   with   two   steel   divider  points, 
besides  the  pen  and  pencil  points,  so  that  the  instrument 
may  be  used  either  as  compasses  or  dividers.     This  is  the 
kind  illustrated  in  Fig.   12.     When  using  the   dividers  to 


FIG.  12. 

space  a  line  or  circle  into  a  number  of  equal  parts,  hold  them 
at  the  top  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  as  when  using 
the  compasses,  and  step  off  the  spaces,  turning  the  instru- 
ment alternately  to  the  right  and  left.  If  the  line  or  circle 
does  not  space  exactly,  vary  the  distance  between  the  divider 
points  and  try  again;  so  continue  until  it  is  spaced  equally. 
When  spacing  in  this  manner,  great  care  must  be  exercised 
not  to  press  the  divider  points  into  the  paper;  for,  if  the 
points  enter  the  paper,  the  spacing  can  never  be  accurately 
done.  The  student  should  satisfy  himself  of  the  truth  of 
this  statement  by  actual  trial. 

11.  The  bow-pencil  and  bow-pen,  shown  in  Fig.  13, 
are  convenient  for  describing  small  circles.  The  two  points 
of  the  instruments  must  be  adjusted  to  the  same  length: 


10 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


otherwise,  very  small  circles  cannot  be  drawn.  To  open  or 
close  cither  of  these  instruments,  support  it  in  a  vertical  posi- 
tion by  resting  the  needle 
point  on  the  paper  and  bear- 
ing slightly  on  the  top  of 
it  with  the  forefinger  of  one 
hand,  and  turn  the  adjust- 
ing nut  with  the  thumb  and 
middle  finger  of  the  same 
hand. 


Fin.  13. 


12.  Drawing  Paper 
and  Pencils.  — The  draw- 
ing paper  recommended  for 
this  series  of  lessons  is 
the  T.  S.  Co. 's  cold-pressed 
demy,  the  size  of  which 
is  15"X20".  It  takes  ink 

well,  and  withstands  considerable  erasing.      The  paper  is 

secured  to  the  drawing  board  by  means  of  thumbtacks. 

Four  are  usually  sufficient — one  at  each 

corner  of  the  sheet  (see  Fig.  7).     Place 

a  piece  of  paper  on  the  drawing  board, 

and  press  a  thumbtack  through  one  of 

the  corners  about  ^  or  f  of  an  inch  from 

each  edge.  Place  the  T  square  in  posi- 
tion for  drawing  a  horizontal  line,  as 

before   explained,    and    straighten    the 

paper  so  that  its  upper  edge  will  be  par- 
allel to  the  edge  of  the  T  square  blade. 

Pull  the  corner  diagonally  opposite  that 

in  which  the  thumbtack  was  placed,  so 

as  to  stretch  the  paper  slightly,  and  push 

in  another  thumbtack.       Do  the  same 

with  the  remaining  two  corners.     For 

drawing  in  pencil,  an  HHHH  pencil  of 

any   reputable   make   should   be   used. 

The  pencil  should  be  sharpened  as  shown  at  A,   Fig.  14. 


FIG.  14. 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


11 


Cut  the  wood  away  so  as  to  leave  about  ^  or  |-  of  an  inch  of 
the  lead  projecting;  then  sharpen  it  flat  by  rubbing  it  against 
a  fine  file  or  a  piece  of  fine  emery  cloth  or  sandpaper  that 
has  been  fastened  to  a  flat  stick.  Grind  it  to  a  sharp  edge 
like  a  knife  blade,  and  round  the  corners  very  slightly,  as 
shown  in  the  figure.  If  sharpened  to  a  round  point,  as 
shown  at  B,  the  point  will  wear  away  very  quickly  and 
make  broad  lines;  when  so  sharpened  it  is  difficult  to  draw 
a  line  exactly  through  a  point.  The  lead  for  the  compasses 
should  be  sharpened  in  the  same  manner  as  the  pencil,  but 
should  have  its  width  narrower.  Be  sure  that  the  compass 
lead  is  so  secured  t/iat,  when  circles  are  struck  in  either 
direction,  but  one  line  will  be  drawn  with  the  same  radius 
and  center. 

13.  Inking. — For  drawing  ink  lines  other  than  arcs  of 
circles,  the  ruling  pen  (or  right-line  pen,  as  it  is  some- 
times called)  is  used.  It  should  be  held  as  nearly  perpen- 


Fio.  15. 


dicular  to  the  board  as  possible,  with  the  hand  in  the  position 
shown  in  Figs.  15  and  1C,  bearing  lightly  against  the  T  square 


lo  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 

or  triangle,  along  the  edge  of  which  the  line  is  drawn.  After 
a  little  practice,  this  position  will  become  natural,  and  no 
difficulty  will  be  experienced. 

14.  The  beginner  will  find  that  it  is  not  always  easy  to 
make  smooth  lines.  If  the  pen  is  held  so  that  only  one  blade 
bears  on  the  paper  when  drawing,  the  line  will  almost  invari- 
ably be  ragged  on  the  edge  where  the  blade  does  not  bear. 
When  held  at  right  angles  to  the  paper,  as  in  Fig.  16,  how- 


FIG.  16. 

ever,  both  blades  will  rest  on  the  paper,  and  if  the  pen  is  in 
good  condition,  smooth  lines  will  result.  The  pen  must  not 
be  pressed  against  the  edge  of  the  T  square  or  triangle,  as 
the  blades  will  then  close  together,  making  the  line  uneven. 
The  edge  should  serve  as  a  guide,  simply. 

In  drawing  circles  with  the  compass  pen,  the  same  care 
should  be  taken  to  keep  the  blades  perpendicular  to  the 
p;i]>er  by  means  of  the  adjustment  at  the  joint.  In  both  the 
ruling  l)(-'!i  an<l  compass  pen,  the  width  of  the  lines  can  be 
altered  by  me  ^  of  the  screw  which  holds  the  blades 
s  of  most  ruling  pens  can  be  unscrewed 
and  are  prov  ^vith  a  needle  point  intended  for  use 


§1  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  13 

when  copying  maps  by  pricking  through  the  original  and  the 
underlying  paper,  thus  locating  a  series  of  points  through 
which  the  outline  may  be  drawn. 

15.  Drawing:  Ink. — The  ink  we  recommend  for  the 
work  in  this  course  is  the  T.  S.  Co. 's  superior  waterproof 
liquid  India  ink.  A  quill  is  attached  to  the  cork  of  every 
bottle  of  this  ink,  by  means  of  which  the  pen  may  be  filled. 
Dip  the  quill  into  the  ink,  and  then  pass  the  end  of  it  between 
the  blades  of  the  drawing  pen.  Do  not  put  too  much  ink  in 
the  pen,  not  more  than  enough  to  fill  it  for  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  along  the  blades,  otherwise  the  ink  is  liable  to  drop. 
Many  draftsmen  prefer  to  use  stick  India  ink;  and,  for  some 
purposes,  this  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  prepared  liquid  ink 
recommended  above.  In  case  the  stick  ink  is  bought,  put 
enough  water  in  a  shallow  dish  (a  common  individual  butter 
plate  will  do)  to  make  enough  ink  for  the  drawing,  then 
place  one  end  of  the  stick  in  the  water,  and  grind  by  giving 
the  stick  a  circular  motion.  Do  not  bear  hard  iipon  the  stick. 
Test  the  ink  occasionally  to  see  if  it  is  black.  Draw  a  fine 
line  with  the  pen,  and  hold  the  paper  in  a  strong  light.  IE 
it  shows  brown  (or  gray),  grind  a  while  longer,  and  test 
again.  Keep  grinding  until  a  fine  line  shows  black,  which 
will  usually  take  from  fifteen  minutes  to  half  an  hour,  depend- 
ing upon  the  quantity  of  water  used.  The  ink  should  always 
be  kept  well  covered  with  a  flat  plate  of  some  kind,  to  keep 
out  the  dust  and  prevent  evaporation.  The  drawing  pen 
may  be  filled  by  dipping  an  ordinary  writing  pen  into  the 
ink  and  drawing  it  through  the  blades,  as  previously 
described  when  using  the  quill.  If  liquid  ink  is  used,  all 
the  lines  on  all  the  drawings  will  be  of  the  same  color,  and 
no  time  will  be  lost  in  grinding.  If  stick  ink  is  used,  it  is 
poor  economy  to  buy  a  cheap  stick.  A  small  stick  of  the 
best  quality,  costing,  say,  a  dollar,  will  last  as  long,  perhaps, 
as  five  dollars'  worth  of  liquid  ink.  The  only  reason  for 
using  liquid  ink  is  that  all  lines  are  then  sure  to  be  of  equal 
blackness,  and  time  is  saved  in  grinding. 

India   ink    will   dry   quickly   on    the    drawing,  which   is 


14  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  §  1 

\ 

desirable,  but  it  also  causes  trouble  by  drying  between  the 
blades  and  refusing  to  flow,  especially  when  drawing  fine 
lines.  The  only  remedy  is  to  wife  out  the  pen  frequently 
with  a  cloth.  Do  not  lay  the  pen  down  for  any  great  length 
of  time  when  it  contains  ink;  wipe  it  out  first.  The  ink  may 
sometimes  be  started  by  moistening  the  end  of  the  finger 
and  touching  it  to  the  point,  or  by  drawing  a  slip  of 
paper  between  the  ends  of  the  blade.  Always  keep  the 
bottle  corked. 

1 6.  To  Sharpen  the  Drawing  Pen. — When  the  ruling, 
or  compass,  pen  becomes  badly  worn,  it  must  be  sharpened. 
For  this  purpose  a  fine  oilstone  should  be  used.  If  an  oil- 
stone is  to  be  purchased,  a  small,  flat,  close-grained  stone 
should  be  obtained,  those  having  a  triangular  section  being 
preferable,  as  the  narrow  edge  can  be  used  on  the  inside  of 
the  blades  in  case  the  latter  are  not  made  to  swing  apart  so 
as  to  permit  the  use  of  a  thicker  edge. 

The  first  step  in  sharpening  is  to  screw  the  blades  together, 
and,  holding  the  pen  perpendicular  to  the  oilstone,  to  draw 
it  back  and  forth  over  the  stone,  changing  the  slope  of  the 
pen  from  downward  and  to  the  right  to  downward  and  to  the 
left  for  each  movement  of  the  pen  to  the  right  and  left.  The 
object  of  this  is  to  bring  the  blades  to  exactly  the  same  length 
and  shape,  and  to  round  them  nicely  at  the  point. 

This  process,  of  course,  makes  the  edges  even  duller  than 
before.  To  sharpen,  separate  the  points  by  means  of  the 
screw,  and  nib  one  of  the  blades  to  and  from  the  operator  in 
a  straight  line,  giving  the  pen  a  slight  twisting  motion  at  the 
same  time,  and  holding  it  at  an  angle  of  about  15°  with 
the  face  of  the  stone.  Repeat  the  process  for  the  other 
blade.  To  be  in  good  condition  the  edges  should  be  fairly 
sharp  and  smooth,  but  not  sharp  enough  to  cut  the  paper. 
////  the  sharpening  must  be  done  on  the  outside  of  the  blades. 
The  inside  of  the  blades  should  be  rubbed  on  the  stone 
only  enough  to  remove  any  burr  that  may  have  been 
formed.  Anything  more  than  this  will  be  likely  to  injure 
the  pen.  The  whole  operation  must  be  done  very  carefully, 


§1 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


15 


bearing  on  lightly,  as  it  is  easy  to  spoil  a  pen  in  the  process. 
Examine  the  points  frequently,  and  keep  at  work  until  the 
pen  will  draw  both  fine  lines  and  smooth  heavy  lines.  Many 
draftsmen  prefer  to  send  the  pens  to  be  sharpened  to  the 
dealer  who  sold  them  and  who  is  generally  willing  to  do  such 
sharpening  at  a  trifling  cost. 

17.  Irregular  Curves. — Curves  other  than  arcs  of  cir- 
cles are  drawn  with  the  pencil  or  ruling  pen  by  means  of  curved 
or  irregular- shaped  rulers,  called  irregular  curves  (see 
Fig.  17).  A  series  of  points  is  first  determined  through  which 
the  curved  line  is  to  pass.  The  line  is  then  drawn  through 
these  points  by  using  such  parts  of  the  irregular  curve  as 
will  pass  through  several  of  the  points  at 
once,  the  curve  being  shifted  from  time 
to  time  as  required. 

It  is  usually  difficult  to  draw  a  smooth, 
continuous  curve.  The  tendency  is  to 
make  it  curve  out  too  much  between  the 
points,  thus  giving  it  a  wavy  appearance, 
or  else  to  cause  it  to  change  its  direction 
abruptly  where  the  different  lines  join, 
making  angles  at  these  points.  These 
defects  may  largely  be  avoided  by  always 
fitting  the  curve  to  at  least  three  points, 
and,  when  moving  it  to  a  new  position,  by 
setting  it  so  that  it  will  coincide  with  part 
of  the  line  already  drawn.  It  will  be 
found  to  be  a  great  help  if  the  line  be 
first  sketched  in  freehand,  in  pencil.  It 
can  then  be  penciled  over  neatly,  or  inked, 
without  much  difficulty,  with  the  aid  of 
the  irregular  curve,  since  the  original  pencil  line  will  show 
the  general  direction  in  which  the  curve  should  be  drawn. 
Whenever  the  given  points  are  far  apart,  or  fall  in  such 
positions  that  the  irregular  curve  cannot  always  be  made  to 
pass  through  three  of  them,  the  line  must  invariably  be 
sketched  in  at  first. 


FIG.  17. 


1G 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


As  an  example,  let  it  be  required  to  draw  a  curved  line 
through  the  points  a,  b,  c,  d,  etc.,  Fig.  18.  As  just  stated, 
a  part  of  the  irregular  curve  must  be  used  which  will  pass 
through  at  least  three  points.  With  the  curve  set  in  the  first 
position  A,  its  edge  is  found  to  coincide  with  four  points 
a,  b,  c,  and  d.  The  line  may  then  be  drawn  from  a  around 
to  d,  or,  better,  to  a  point  between  c  and  d,  since,  by  not  con- 


FIG.  18. 


tinning  it  quite  to  d,  there  is  less  liability  of  there  being  an 
angle  where  the  next  section  joins  on.  For  the  next  section 
of  the  line,  the  curve  should  be  adjusted  so  as  to  coincide 
with  apart  of  the  section  already  drawn;  that  is,  instead  of 
adjusting  it  to  points  d,  <\f,  etc.,  it  should  be  placed  so  as  to 
pass  through  the  point  r,  the  part  from  c  to  d  being  coinci- 
dent with  the  corresponding  part  of  the  first  line  drawn. 


§  1  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  17 

The  irregular  curve  is  shown  dotted  in  this  position  at  B. 
Its  edge  passes  through  four  points  c,d,c,  and/,  and  the 
line  should  be  made  to  stop  midway  between  the  last  two,  as 
before. 

Now,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  points  f  and  g  are  so  situ- 
ated that  the  remainder  of  the  line  must  curve  up,  instead  of 
down,  as  heretofore,  the  change  in  curvature  occurring  at  a 
point  between  e  and  /.  In  this  case,  therefore,  it  is  not  nec- 
essary for  the  curve  to  extend  back  to  ^,  through  which  point 
the  line  has  already  been  drawn,  but  it  may  be  placed  in 
position  C  with  its  edge  just  tangent  to  the  line  at  the  point 
where  the  curvature  changes. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  in  inking  with  the  irregular  curve, 
the  blades  of  the  pen  must  be  kept  tangent  to  its  edge  (i.  e., 
the  inside  flat  surface  of  the  blades  must  have  the  same  direc- 
tion as  the  curve  at  the  point  where  the  pen  touches  the 
paper),  which  requires  that  the  direction  of  the  pen  be  con- 
tinually changed. 

18.  The  scale  is  used  for  obtaining  measurements  for 
drawings.     The  most  convenient  forms  are  the  usual  flat  and 
triangular  boxwood  scales,  having  beveled  edges,  each  of 
which  is  graduated  for  a  distance  of  12  inches.     The  beveled 
edges  serve  to  bring  the  lines  of  division  close  to  the  paper 
when  the  scale  is  lying  flat,  so  that  the  drawing  may  be 
accurately  measured,  or  distances  laid  oft  correctly.     The 
use  of  the  graduations  on  scales  will  be  explained  when  it  is 
necessary  to  use  the  scale.     - 

19.  A  protractor  is  shown  in  Fig.  19.     The  outer  edge 
is  a  semicircle,  with  center  at"  (7,   and  is  divided  into  300 
parts.     Each  division  is  one-half  of  one  degree,  and,  for  con- 
venience, the  degrees  are  numbered  from  0°  to  180°  from 
both  A  and  B.     The  protractor  is  iised  for  laying  off  or 
measuring  angles.      Protractors  arc  often  made  of  metal,  in 
which  case  the  central  part  is  cut  away  to  make  the  drawing 
under  it  visible.     When  using  the   protractor,    it   must  bo 
placed  so  that  the  line  O  />',  Fig.  Ill,  will  coincide  with  the 


18 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


line  forming  one  side  of  the  angle  to  be  laid  off  or  measured, 
and  the  center  O  must  be  at  the  vertex  of  the  angle. 


FIG.  19. 

For  example,  let  it  be  required  to  draw  a  line  through  the 
point  C,  making  an  angle  of  54°  with  the  line  E  F,  Fig.  20. 
Place  the  protractor  upon  the  line  E  F,  as  just  described,  with 
the  center  O  upon  the  point  C.  With  a  sharp-pointed  pencil, 
make  a  mark  on  the  paper  at  the  54°  division,  as  indicated 
at  D.  A  line  drawn  through  C  and  D  will  then  make  an 
angle  of  54°  with  E  F.  Greater  exactness  will  be  secured 


FIG.  30. 


if  the  line  E  F  be  extended  to  the  left,  so  that  both  zero 
marks  (A  and  B,  Fig.  19)  can  be  placed  on  the  line.  This 
should  always  be  done  when  possible. 


§  1  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  19 

LETTERING. 

2O.  In  mechanical  drawing,  all  headings,  explanatory 
matter,  and  dimensions  should  be  neatly  printed  on  the 
drawing.  Ordinary  script  writing  is  not  permissible. 

It  is  usually  difficult  for  beginners  to  letter  well,  and  unless 
the  student  is  skilful  at  it,  he  should  devote  some  time  to 
practicing  lettering  before  commencing  the  drawing.  In 
correcting  the  plates,  the  lettering  will  be  considered  as  well 
as  the  drawing.  Many  students  think  that  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  exercise  special  care  when  drawing  the  views  on  a 
plate,  and  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  take  particular  pains  in 
lettering.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case,  for,  no  matter 
how  well  the  views  may  be  drawn,  if  the  lettering  is  poorly 
done,  the  finished  drawing  will  not  have  a  neat  appearance. 
In  fact,  generally  speaking,  more  time  is  required  to  make 
well-executed  letters  than  to  make  well-executed  drawings 
of  objects.  We  earnestly  request  the  student  to  practice 
lettering,  and  not  to  think  that  that  part  of  the  work  is  of  no 
importance.  The  student  should  not  be  too  hasty  in  doing 
the  lettering.  It  takes  an  experienced  draftsman  consider- 
able time  to  do  good  lettering,  and  no  draftsman  can  per- 
form this  work  as  quickly  as  he  can  ordinary  writing; 
therefore,  no  beginner  should  attempt  to  do  what  experi- 
enced draftsmen  cannot  do.  In  order  to  letter  well,  the  work 
must  be  done  slowly.  Very  frequently  more  time  is  spent 
in  lettering  a  drawing  than  in  inking  in  the  objects  repre- 
sented. Instructions  will  be  given  in  two  styles  of  freehand 
lettering,  both  extensively  used  in  American  drafting  rooms. 

With  the  exception  of  the  large  headings  or  titles  of  the 
plates,  the  style  and  size  of  all  lettering  used  on  the  original 

ABCDEFGJtlJJCLMNOPQRSTWWXYZ 

adcd,e/ytiijJtl?nnopqr stuvivx yz  & 
/83456789O  /sassersso  2L6i'otia,.Cast Iron 


drawing  plates  of  this  course  are  shown  in  Fig.  21.  This 
style,  although  a  little  more  elaborate  and  difficult  in  exe- 
cution, was  selected  on  account  of  its  greater  neatness  and 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


FIG.  22. 


legibleness.  The  two  styles  are  very  similar  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  letters,  and  although  the  student  is  advised  to 
select  and  use  only  one  of  the  two  on  his  drawings  in  this 
course,  he  will  find,  after  having  mastered  one  of  the  styles, 
little  difficulty  in  practicing  the  other. 

When  lettering,  a  Gillott's  No.  303  pen  should  be  used. 
The  height  of  the  capital  letters  should  be  -j\",  and  of  the 
small  letters  two-thirds  of  this,  or  Ty.  This  applies  to 
both  styles  of  freehand  lettering.  Do  not  make  them 
larger  than  tJiis. 

21.  Before  beginning  to  letter,  horizontal  guide  lines 
should  be  drawn  with  the  T  square,  to  serve  as  a  guide  for 
the  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  letters  (see  Fig.  22).     The  out- 
side lines  should  be  -/%"  apart  for .  the  capitals,  and  the  two 
lower   lines  TV/'  apart   for   the   small   letters.     The   letters 
should  be  made  to  extend  fully  up  to  the  top  and  down  to 

the  bottom  guide  lines.  They 
must  not  fall  short  of  the  guide 
lines,  nor  extend  beyond  them. 

Failure  to  observe  this  point  will  cause  the  lettering  to  look 

ragged,  as  in  the  second  word  in  Fig.  22. 

22.  It  is  very  important  that  all  the  letters  have  the 
same  inclination.      For  example, 

by  referring    to   Fig.    23    (a),    it 

will   be   seen   that   the    backs   of 

letters  like  />',  E,  /,  £-,  d,  i,  t,  etc.  are  parallel  and  slant 

the  same  way.  This 
is  also  true  of  both 
sides  of  letters  like 
H,  M,  11,  u,  h,  y,  etc. 
To  aid  in  keeping  the 
slant  uniform,  draw 

1  parallel  slanting  lines 

across  the  guide  lines 
with  the  00°  triangle, 

as  in   Fig.  :.'.'!  (A),  and,  in  lettering,  make  the  backs  or  sides, 

of  the  K -l U-rs  parall'-l  with  these  lines. 


FlG' 


§  1  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  21 

23.  A  few  points  regarding-  the  construction  of  the  letters 
are  illustrated  in  Fig.  24,  in  which  the  letters  are  shown  upon 
an  enlarged  scale.  The  capital  letters  A,  V,  Y,  M,  and  W 
must  be  printed  so  that 


the    other  letters.      To 

print   the  A.    draw   the  /  ,     , 

1-  7    i  uu,u  ll*hqq    rrrdb    £S?+ 

center  line  a  d,    having  gcrw  •*/"    *yr* 

the  common  slant;  from 

a  draw  the  sides  a  c  and  a  b,  so  that  points  c  and  £  will  each 

be  -fa"  distant  from  point  d.     The  side  a  b  will  be  nearly 

perpendicular  to  the  guide  lines.      The  Fis  like  an  inverted 

A,  and  is  drawn  in  the  same  way,  the  line  bd  being  nearly 

perpendicular. 

To  make  the  Y,  draw  the  center  line  a  d,  having  the  com- 
mon slant,  which  gives  the  slant  for  the  base  of  the  letter. 
The  upper  part  of  the  Y  begins  a  little  below  its  center,  and 
is  similar  to  the  F,  though  somewhat  narrower,  as  the  letter 
should  be  only  -fa"  wide  at  the  top.  Points  b  and  c  should 
be  at  equal  distances  from  point  a. 

The  two  sides  be  and  ef  of  the  J/are  parallel,  and  have 
the  common  slant.  The  M  is  made  as  broad  as  it  is  high, 
or  ^j".  Having  drawn  the  two  sides,  mark  the  point  </, 
midway  between  the  points  c  and  /,  and  connect  it  with 
points  b  and  e.  The  lines  bd  and  ed  should  be  slightly 
curved,  as  shown. 

In  the  Wthe  two  outside  lines  are  not  parallel,  as  in  the  J7, 
but  are  farther  apart  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom.  Draw  the 
line  a  d,  having  the  common  slant.  Mark  points  b  and  r,  which 
are  exactly  ^"  from  the  point  a.  From  b  and  c  draw  lines  b  d 
and  c  d.  The  other  half  of  the  W  is  like  the  first  part,  cf 
being  parallel  to  bd  and  cf  parallel  to  c  d.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  If7  is  composed  of  two  narrow  Ps,  each  T\"  wide, 
the  width  of  the  whole  letter  being  \"  '. 

24.  Capital  letters  like  J\  R,  />',  /.,  E,  etc.  should  be 
printed  so  that  their  top  and  bottom  lines  will  be  i:\-tjctly 


22  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  §  1 

horizontal.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  two  examples  of  the 
word  problem  in  Fig.  24.  In  the  first  example,  it  will  be 
noticed  that  the  tops  of  the  /'and  R,  the  bottom  of  the  L,  and 
the  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  B  and  E,  all  run  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  guide  lines,  and  coincide  with  them.  In 
the  second  example,  these  lines  are  not  horizontal,  which 
makes  the  word  look  very  uneven.  It  is  also  to  be 
noticed  that  these  lines  extend  beyond  the  upright  lines  in 
the  first  word,  and  that  cross-lines  are  used  on  the  bottom 
of  the  P  and  R,  on  the  top  of  the  L,  and  on  the  M.  In 
the  second  word,  these  lines  are  omitted  at  the  points  indi- 
cated by  the  arrows.  These  features  are  found  on  most  of 
the  other  capitals. 

The  small  letters  n,  u,  //,  /,  i,  etc.  should  have  sharp  cor- 
ners at  the  points  indicated  by  the  arrows  in  Fig.  24.  They 
look  much  better  that  way,  and  are  less  difficult  to  make, 
than  when  they  have  round  corners.  Following  these  letters 
are  five  groups  of  letters  containing  ;/,  u,  l,g,  and  r.  The 
first  letter  of  each  group  is  printed  correctly,  while  the  letters 
following  show  ways  in  which  they  should  not  be  printed. 
In  the  case  of  the^,  point  2  should  fall  in  a  slanting  direc- 
tion under  point  1,  the  slant  being  the  same  as  a  d  of  the 
preceding  letters.  The  difference  between  d  and  b  and  the 
construction  of  the  s  are  also  shown  in  the  same  figure. 
The  b  should  be  made  rounding  at  the  point  indicated. 
As  a  guide  in  making  the  s,  draw  the  two  lines  a  b  and  c  d, 
having  the  common  slant.  The  s  should  now  be  drawn  so 
that  it  will  touch  these  lines  at  points  1,  3,  and  4,  but  not  at 
point  2.  It  will  be  an  additional  help  if  the  line  ex  is  also 
drawn  as  a  guide  for  the  middle  portion  of  the  s;  but  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  have  it  slant  more  than  shown  in  the 
copy. 

The  letters  a,  o,  />,£-,  etc.  should  be  full  and  round;  do  not 
cramp  them.  It  will  be  necessary  to  follow  the  copy  closely 
until  familiar  with  it.  Notice  that  the  figures  are  not  made 
as  in  writing,  particularly  the  6?,  4,  8,  and  9  (see  Fig.  21).  Try 
to  space  the  letters  evenly.  Letter  in  pencil  first,  and,  if 
not  right,  erase  and  try  again. 


§  1  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  23 

25.  Another  style  of  freehand  lettering  is  shown  in 
Fig.  25.  This  style  is  extensively  used  for  the  lettering 
of  working  drawings.  It  is  more  easily  and  rapidly 

ABCDEFGH/JKL  MMOPQRSTL/l/WXYZ 


at?  c  c/e  fgh/jfr/m  n  opqrsfu  v  wxyz  A 


/234S678  9/O  /234567890  2-6t 

FIG.  25. 

made  than  the  style  previously  described,  and  although  not 
productive  of  as  high  degree  of  neatness  in  appearance  will 
be  found  very  useful  and  acceptable  for  general  office  work. 
A  comparison  between  the  two  systems  will   disclose  a 
great  similarity  in  the  detail  formation  of  the  letters. 

26.  The  horizontal  and  slanting  guide  lines  are  drawn 
exactly  in  the  same  man- 

ner  as  for  the  style  prc-    Horizontal       Hor/zonfal 

..        ,  -i-i  -IT  FIG.  26. 

viously  described,  and  if 

not  followed  the  results  will  be  similar.     See  the  uneven 

appearance  of  the  second  word  in  Fig.  26. 

27.  By  studying  the  formation  of  the  letters  carefully, 
it  will  be  found  that  many  of  them  are  formed  on  the  same 
principle,   as  shown  in  Fig.  27.     The    ovals   of   the  letters 

a,  b,  if,  g,  />,  and  q  are  formed  exactly 
0  E>  &£>(^O  alike  an(j  have   a  slant  of  45°  wjth 

the  horizontal.      These  ovals  should 

C     6 

L>  —  ">  be   made   a  little  wider  at  the   top 

r  n  ffl  h    /      /    than  at  the  bottom.     Care  should  be 
taken    that   the   straight   downward 
/  strokes    are    made    parallel    to   the 

slanting  guide  lines.     The  letters  r 

and  e  are  commenced   in    the  same 
FIG.  27. 

way,  but  the  upper  loop  in  e  should 

be  formed  in  such  a  manner  that  its  axis  will  be  at  an  angle 


if 


24  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  §  1 

of  4.5°  with  the  horizontal.  The  r  is  made  by  having'  the 
down  stroke  parallel  to  the  slanting  guide  line  and  the 
up  stroke  slightly  curved  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  letter  n 
(see  Fig.  2T).  The  strokes  in  the  letters  j  and  /  are  the 
same,  with  the  position  of  the  hooked  part  reversed. 

28.     The  eapital  letters    shown   in  Fig.    28    are  formed 
very  nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  those  shown  in  Art.  23, 


FIG.  as. 


but  differ  slightly  by  omitting  the  short  spurs  that  give  to 
the  letters  a  more  finished  appearance. 

In  the  capital  J7,  however,  there  is  a  decided  variation. 
The  M  is  made  with  four  strokes,  putting  in  the  parallel 
sides  first.  The  two  other  strokes  should  join  midway 
between  these  sides  and  at  a  distance  from  the  top  of  about 
-i  of  the  height  of  the  letter.  These  strokes,  as  will  be  seen, 
are  straight  and  not  curved. 

2J).  The  numerals  should  be  -fa"  high  and  of  the  style 
shown  in  Fig.  25 ;  fractions  should  be  \"  high  over  all.  In 


Fig.  2!»  the  numerals  are  illustrated  to  a  larger  scale,  and  a 
comparison  with  the  style  shown  in  Fig.  21  will  disclose 
several  variations. 

The  loops  of  the  £,  «?,  5,  G,  and  9  should  be  formed  so  that 

will  be  at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  horizontal.      It 

I  be  noted  that  the  7  differs  widely  from  the  style  shown  in 

Fig.  21,  the  down  stroke  not  curving  but  having  a  straight 

The  axis  of  the  0  and  the  loops  of  the  8  should 

slant  at  an  anirle  of  r,o° 


rr 


§  1  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  25 

Diligent  practice  for  a  short  time  and  careful  observation 
of  the  forms  of  letters  and  numerals  as  shown  in  Figs.  21-29 
will  soon  enable  the  student  to  acquire  skill  and  speed  in  this 
branch  of  drawing. 

30.  The   alphabet  shown  in  Fig.  30,  called  the  block 
letter,  is  to  be  used  for  the  large  headings  or  titles  of  plates, 
as  shown  on  the  copy  plates.     This  alphabet  is  not  to  be  used 
on  the  first  five  geometrical  drawing  plates.     The  letters  and 
figures  are  to  be  made  y^-"  high  and  \"  wide,  except^/,  which 
is  -£$"  wide,  and  W,  which  is  f "  wide.     The  thickness  of  all 

ABCDEFGHI  J 
KLMNDPOR  S 
TU V W  X  YZS 
IE345B7B3D 

FIG.  30. 

the  lines  forming  the  letters  is  y1^,  measured  horizontally. 
The  distance  between  any  two  letters  of  a  word  is  y1^", 
except  where  A  follows  P  or  F\  where  V,  W,  or  F  follows 
L;  where  /  follows  F,  P,  T,  V,  W,  or  F;  where  T  and  A 
are  adjacent,  or  A  and  F,  W,  or  Fare  adjacent;  in  this  case, 
the  bottom  extremity  of  A  and  the  top  extremity  of  /*,  7", 
F,  T^are  in  the  same  vertical  line,  etc. 

31.  Since  these  letters  are  composed  of  straight  lines, 
they  can  be  made  with  the  T  square  and  triangle.    In  lettering 
the  title  of  the  drawing  plates,  the  student  should  draw  six 
horizontal  lines  y1^"  apart  in  lead  pencil,  to  represent  the  thick- 
ness of  the  letters  at  the  top,  center,  and  bottom;  then,  by 
use  of  the  triangle,  he  should  draw  in  the  width  of  the  letters 
and  the  spaces  between  them  in  lead  pencil.     Having  the 


20  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  §  1 

letters  all  laid  out,  he  can  very  easily  ink  them  in.  Use  the 
ruling  pen  for  inking  in  the  straight  outlines  of  the  letters, 
and  the  lettering  pen  for  rounding  the  corners  and  filling  in 
between  the  outlines.  It  is  well  to  ink  in  all  the  perpen- 
dicular lines  first,  next  the  horizontal  lines,  and  then  the 
oblique  lines. 


PLATES. 

32.  Preliminary  Directions. — The  size  of  each  plate 
over  all  will  be  14"  X  18",  having  a  border  line  \"  from  each 
edge  all  around,  thus  making  the  size  of  the  space  on  which 
the  drawing  is  to  be  made  13"  X  17".  The  sheet  itself  must 
be  larger  than  this  when  first  placed  upon  the  board,  so  that 
the  thumbtack  holes  maybe  cut  out;  the  extra  margin  is 
also  very  convenient  for  testing  the  pen,  in  order  to  see 
whether  the  ink  is  flowing  well  and  whether  the  lines  are  of 
the  proper  thickness. 

The  first  five  plates  will  consist  of  practical  geometrical 
problems  which  constantly  arise  in  practice  when  making 
drawings.  The  method  of  solving  every  one  of  these 
problems  should  be  carefully  memorized,  so  that  they 
can  be  instantly  applied  when  the  occasion  requires, 
without  being  obliged  to  refer  to  the  text  for  help. 
Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  lettering. 
Whenever  any  dimensions  are  specified,  they  should  be 
laid  off  as  accurately  as  possible.  All  drawings  should 
be  made  as  neat  as  possible,  and  the  penciling  entirely 
finished  before  inking  in  any  part  of  it.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  in  distributing  the  different  views,  parts, 
details,  etc.  on  the  drawing,  so  that  when  the  drawing 
is  completed,  one  view  will  not  be  so  near  to  another 
as  to  mar  the  appearance  of  the  drawing.  The  hands 
should  be  perfectly  clean,  and  should  not  touch  the  paper 
except  when  necessary.  No  lines  should  be  erased  except 
when  absolutely  necessary;  for,  whenever  a  line  has  once 
been  erased,  the  dirt  flying  around  in  the  air  and  con- 
stantly falling  on  the  drawing  will  stick  to  any  spot  where  an 


JL. 


PROBLEM  t:    To  bisect   a  straight  fine. 


PROBLEM  3:  To  draw  a  perpendicu/ar  to  a  straight 
CASE  1. 


PLA1 


PROBLEM  2:  To  draw  a 
CA. 


//ne  from  a  point  without 
CASE 


cutar  to  a  straight  l^ne  from  a  given  point  in  that  line. 

CASE  II. 


PffOBL  EM  4:  Through  a  given  point  to  draw 
a  straight  line  para  lie/  to  a  given  straight  fine 


JOHN  SMITH.    CLASS  N?  4529. 


§1  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  27 

erasure  has  been  made,  and  it  is  then  very  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  entirely  remove  it.  For  this  reason,  all  con- 
struction lines  that  are  to  be  removed,  or  that  are  liable  to  be 
changed,  should  be  drawn  lightly,  that  the  finish  of  the  paper 
may  not  be  destroyed  when  erasing  them.  When  it  is  found 
necessary  to  erase  an  ink  blot  or  a  line  that  has  been  inked  in, 
only  an  ink  eraser  or  sand  rubber  should  be  used.  After  the 
erasure  has  been  made,  the  roughened  part  of  the  surface 
of  the  paper  can  be  smoothed  by  rubbing  with  some 
hard,  smooth  substance,  as  a  piece  of  ivory  or  the  handle 
of  a  knife. 

PLATE    I. 

33.  Take  a  sheet  of  drawing  paper  15"  wide  and  20" 
long  (demy  size),  and  fasten  it  to  the  board  as  previously 
described.  On  this  draw  the  outlines  of  the  size  of  the 
plate,  14"  X  18",  and  draw  the  border  line  all  around  \"  from 
the  edge  of  the  outline,  leaving  the  space  inside  for  the  draw- 
ing I3"Xl7ff.  When  the  word  draiving is  used  hereafter, 
it  refers  only  to  the  space  inside  the  border  lines  and  the 
objects  drawn  upon  it.  To  understand  clearly  what  fol- 
lows, refer  to  Plate  I.  Divide  the  drawing  into  two  equal 
parts  by  means  of  a  faint  horizontal  line.  This  line  is 
shown  dotted  in  Plate  I,  above  referred  to.  Divide 
each  of  these  halves  into  three  equal  parts,  as  shown  by 
the  dotted  lines;  this  divides  the  drawing  into  six  rect- 
angular spaces.  These  division  lines  are  not  to  be  inked 
in,  but  must  be  erased  when  the  plate  is  completed.  On 
the  first  five  plates,  space  for  the  lettering  must  be  taken 
into  account.  For  each  of  the  six  equal  spaces,  the 
lettering  will  take  tip  one  or  two  lines.  The  height  of  all 
capital  letters  on  these  plates  will  be  ^j",  and  of  the  small 
letters  |  of  this,  or  TV'.  The  distance  between  any  two 
lines  of  lettering  will  also  be  -fa".  The  distance  between 
the  tops  of  the  letters  on  the  first  line  of  lettering  and 
the  top  line  of  the  equal  divisions  of  the  drawing  is  to 
be  \"\  an<i  the  space  between  the  bottoms  of  the  letters 
and  the  topmost  point  of  the  figure  represented  on  the 


;>8  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  §  1 

drawing  within  one  of  these  six  divisions  must  also  be 
not  less  than  -.',"-  This  makes  a  very  neat  arrangement, 
if  the  figure  is  so  placed  that  the  outermost  points  of 
the  bounding  lines  are  equally  distant  from  the  sides  of 
one  of  the  equal  rectangular  spaces.  Consequently,  if 
there  is  one  line  of  lettering,  no  point  of  the  figure 
drawn  should  come  nearer  than  i"+  aY'  +|"  =  1-jV'  to  tne 
top  line  of  the  space  within  which  it  is  represented;  or,  if 
there  are  two  lines  of  lettering,  nearer  than  \"  -\-  £%"  -\-  ^" 
-j-^V  -j-  .V"  =  l-jV'.  The  letter  heading  for  each  figure  on 
the  first  five  plates  will  be  printed  in  heavy-faced  type 
at  the  beginning  of  the  directions  explaining  each  prob- 
lem. The  student  must  judge  for  himself  by  the  length 
of  the  heading  whether  it  will  take  up  one  line  or  two,  and 
make  due  allowance  for  the  space  it  takes  up.  This  is  a 
necessary  precaution,  because  the  lettering  should  never  be 
done  until  the  rest  of  the  drawing  is  entirely  finished  and 
inked  in. 

PROBLEM  1. — To  bisect  a  straight  line. 

See  Fig.  31 ;  also  1  of  Plate  I. 

CONSTRUCTION. — Draw  a  straight  line  A  B,  ?>\"  long.   With 
one  extremity  A  as  a  center,  and  a  radius  greater  than  one- 
half  of  the  length  of  the 
\i/ 

line,  describe  an  arc  of  a 
circle  on  each  side  of  the 
given  line ;  with  the  other 
extremity  B  as  a  center, 
.  a  and  the  same  radius,  de- 
scribe arcs  intersecting 
the  first  two  in  the 
points  C  and  D.  Join  C 
and  D  by  the  line  CD, 

and  the  point  P.  where  it 
FIG.  3i. 

intersects  A  B,  will  be  the 

=  />/?,  and  Pis  the  middle  point 

Since  CD  is  perpendicular  to  A  B,  this  construction 

also  gives  a  perpendicular  to  a  straight  line  at  its  middle  point. 


§1 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


29 


A- 


J» 
FIG.  32. 


PROBLEM  2. — To  draw  a  perpendicular  to  a  straight 
line  from  a  given  point  in  that  line. 

NOTE. — As  there  are  two  cases  of  this  problem,  requiring  two  figures 
on  the  plate,  the  line  of  letters  will  be  run  clear  across  both  figures,  as 
shown  in  Plate  I. 

Case  I. —  When  the  point  is  at  or  near  the  center  of 
the  line.  See  Fig.  32;  also  2,  Case  I,  of  Plate  I. 

CONSTRUCTION.  —  Draw 
A  B  3f  long.  Let  P 
be  the  given  point.  With 
P  as  a  center,  and  any 
radius,  as  P  D,  describe 
two  short  arcs  cutting 
A  Bin  the  points  Cand  D. 
With  C  and  D  as  cen- 
ters, and  any  convenient 
radius  greater  than  PD,  describe  two  arcs  intersecting 
in  E.  Draw  P£,  and  it  will  be  perpendicular  to  A  B 
at  the  point  P. 

Case  II. —  When  the  point  is  near  the  end  of  the  line.     See 

Fig.  33;  also  2,  Case  II,  of 
Plate  I. 

Draw  AB  3|"  long. 
Take  the  given  point  P 
about  f  from  the  end  of 
the  line.  With  any  point 
O  as  a  center,  and  a  radius 
O  P,  describe  an  arc  cut- 
ting A  B  in  P  and  D. 
Draw  D  O,  and  prolong  it 
until  it  intersects  the  arc 
in  the  point  C.  A  line  drawn  through  C  and  P  will  be  per- 
pendicular to  A  B  at  the  point  P. 

PROBLEM  3. — To  draw  a  perpendicular  to  a  straight 
line  from  a  point  -without  it. 


FIG.  83. 


As  in  Problem  2,  there  are  two  cases. 


30 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


§1 


A  B  31 


r 


Case    I.  —  M'hcn    the   point   lies   nearly   over   the    center 
of  the  line.     See  Fig.  34;    also  3,  Case  I,  of  Plate  I. 

CONSTRUCTION. — Draw 
long.  Let  P  be 
the  given  point.  With  P 
as  a  center,  and  any  radius 
P  D  greater  than  the  dis- 
tance from  P  to  A  />',  de- 
scribe an  arc  cutting  A  B 
in  C  and  D.  With  C  and 
D  as  centers,  and  any  con- 
venient radius,  describe 
FK..  ;«.  short  arcs  intersecting 

in  R.     A  line  drawn  through  Pand  R  will  be  perpendicular 
to  A  B  at  /•". 

Case  II. —  When  lite  point  lies  nearly  over  one  end  of  the 
line.     See  Fig.  35;  also  3,  Case  II,  of  Plate  I. 

Draw  A  B  3V'  long,  and  let  P  be  the  given  point.     With 
any    point    C    on     the  VP 

line  A  B  as  a  center, 
and  the  distance  C  P 
as  a  radius,  describe 

an  arc   P  P.  D    cutting     4, |      \E 

A  B  in  R.     With  R  as 
a   center,    and   the  dis- 
tance R  P  as  a  radius, 
describe     an     arc     cut-          * 
ting  the  arc  /'/:  D  in  D. 
The  line  joining  the  points  P  and  D  will  be  perpendicular 
to  A  />. 

PROBLEM    4.  — Througli    a    given    point,    to    draw    a 
straight  line  parallel  to  a  given  straight  line. 

See  Fig.  30;  also  4  of  Plate  I. 

CONSTRUC-I  ION. — Let  P  be  the  given  point,  and  A  B  the 
given  straight  line  \}\"  long.      With  P  as  a  center,  and  any 


FIG.  35. 


§  1  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  31 

convenient  radius,  describe  an  arc  CD  intersecting  A  B 
in  D.  With  D  as  a  center,  and  the  same  radius,  describe 
the  arc  PE.  With  D  as  a  center,  and  a  radius  equal  to  the 

chord    of    the    arc    PE. 

f, .0 

descnbe  an  arc  intersect- 
ing C  D  in  C.  A  straight 
line  drawn  through  P  and 
C  will  be  parallel  to  A  B. 


/2>  34.  These  four  prob- 

lems form  Plate  I.  They 

should  be  carefully  and  accurately  drawn  in  with  lead-pencil 
lines  and  then  inked  in.  It  will  be  noticed  that  on  Plate  I, 
and  Figs.  31  to  3(j,  the  given  lines  are  light,  the  required 
lines  heavy,  and  the  construction  lines,  which,  in  a  practical 
working  drawing,  would  be  left  out,  are  light  dotted.  This 
system  must  also  be  followed  in  the  four  plates  which  are  to 
follow.  A  single  glance  enables  one  to  see  at  once  the 
reason  for  drawing  the  figure,  and  the  eye  is  directed 
immediately  to  the  required  line. 

In  the  first  five  plates,  accuracy  and  neatness  are  the  main 
things  to  be  looked  out  for.  The  student  should  be  certain 
that  the  lines  are  of  precisely  the  length  that  is  specified  in 
the  description.  When  drawing  a  line  through  two  points,  be 
sure  that  the  line  goes  through  the  points;  if  it  does  not  pass 
exactly  through  the  points,  erase  it  and  draw  it  over  again. 
If  a  line  is  supposed  to  end  at  some  particular  point,  make 
it  end  there — do  not  let  it  extend  beyond  or  fall  short. 
Thus,  in  Fig.  36,  if  the  line  P  C  does  not  pass  through  the 
points  Pand  C,  it  is  not  parallel  to  A  B.  By  paying  care- 
ful attention  to  these  points,  the  student  saves  himself  a 
great  deal  of  trouble  in  the  futiire.  Do  not  hurry  your 
work. 

First  ink  in  all  of  the  light  lines  and  light  dotted  lines 
(which  have  the  same  thickness);  then  ink  in  the  heavy 
required  lines  after  the  pen  has  been  readjusted.  Now  do  the 
lettering  (first  read  carefully  the  paragraphs  under  the  head 
"  Lettering  "),  and  finally  draw  the  heavy  border  lines,  which 


32  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  §  1 

should  be  thicker  than  any  other  line  on  the  drawing. 
The  word  "  Plate  "  and  its  number  should  be  printed 
at  the  top  of  the  sheet,  outside  the  border  lines,  and 
midway  of  its  length,  as  shown.  The  student's  name, 
followed  by  the  words  "Class"  and  "No.,"  and  after 
this  his  course  letter  and  c/ass  number  should  be  printed 
in  the  lower  right-hand  corner  below  the  border  line, 
as  shown.  Thus,  John  Smith,  Class  No.  C  4529.  The 
date  on  which  the  drawing  was  completed  should  be 
placed  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner,  below  the  border 
line.  All  of  tliis  lettering  is  to  be  in  capitals  ^"  high. 
Erase  the  division  lines,  and  clean  the  drawing  by  rub- 
bing very  gently  with  the  eraser.  Care  must  be  exer- 
cised when  doing  this,  or  the  inked  lines  will  also  be  erased. 
It  is  best  to  use  a  so-called  "  Sponge  Rubber  "  for  this  pur- 
pose, as  it  will  not  injure  the  inked  lines.  If  any  part  of  a 
line  has  been  erased  or  weakened,  it  must  be  redrawn.  Then 
write  with  the  lead  pencil  your  name  and  address  in  full 
on  the  back  of  your  drawing,  after  which  put  your  drawing 
in  the  empty  tube  which  was  sent  you,  and  send  it  to  the 
Schools. 

HINTS  FOR  PLATE  I. 

35.  Do  not  forget  to  make  a  distinction  between  the  width 
of  the  given  and  required  lines,  nor  forget  to  make  the  con- 
struction lines  dotted. 

When  drawing  dotted  lines,  take  pains  to  have  the  dots 
and  spaces  uniform  in  length.  Make  the  dots  about  -^" 
long  and  the  spaces  only  about  one-third  the  length  of 
the  dots. 

Try  to  get  the  work  accurate.  The  constructions  must  be 
accurate,  and  all  lines  or  figures  should  be  drawn  of  the 
length  or  size  previously  stated.  To  this  end,  work  carefully 
and  keep  the  pencil  leads  very  sharp,  so  that  the  lines  ivill 
be  fine. 

The  lettering  on  the  first  few  plates,  as  well  as  on  the  suc- 
ceeding plates,  is  fully  as  important  as  the  drawing,  and 
should  be  done  in  the  neatest  possible  manner.  Drawings  sent 


§  1  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  33 

in  for  correction  with  the  lettering  omitted  will  be  returned 
for  completion. 

The  reference  letters  like  A,  £,  C,  etc. ,  as  shown  in  Fig.  31, 
are  not  to  be  put  on  the  plates. 

Do  not  neglect  to  trim  the  plates  to  the  required  size.  Do 
not  punch  large  holes  in  the  paper  with  the  dividers  or  com- 
passes. Remember  that  the  division  lines  are  to  be  erased — 
not  inked  in. 

PLATE   II. 

36.  Draw  the  division  lines  in  the  same  manner  as 
described  for  Plate  I.  The  following  five  problems,  Nos.  5 
to  9,  inclusive,  are  to  be  drawn  in  regular  order,  as  was 
done  in  Plate  I,  with  problems  from  1  to  4.  The  letter 
headings  are  given  in  heavy-faced  type  after  the  problem 
number. 

PROBLEM  5. — To  bisect  a  given  angle.* 

Case  I. — When  the  sides  intersect  within  the  limits  of  the 
drawing.  See  Fig.  37. 

CONSTRUCTION. — Let 
A  O  B  be  the  angle  to  be 
bisected.  Draw  the  sides 
OA  and  OB  3£"  long. 
With  the  vertex  O  as  a 
center,  and  any  convenient 
radius,  describe  an  arc  D  E 
intersecting  O  A  at  D  and 
O  B  at  E.  With  D  and  E 

FIG.  87. 
as  centers,   and   a  radius 

greater  than  the  chord  of  half  the  arc  D  E,  describe  two  arcs 
intersecting  at  C.  The  line  drawn  through  C  and  O  will 
bisect  the  angle ;  that  is,  A  0  C  —  COB. 


*  Since  the  letter  heading  in  this  problem  is  very  short,  it  will  be 
better  to  place  it  over  each  of  the  two  cases  separately,  instead  of 
running  it  over  the  division  line,  as  was  done  with  the  long  headings 
of  the  two  cases  in  Plate  I.  Put  Case  I  and  Case  II  under  the  head- 
ing, as  in  the  previous  plate. 


34 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


Case  ll.—  U'/ifn  the  sides  do  not  intersect  within  the  limits 
of  the  drawing.  See  Fig.  38. 

Draw  two  lines,  A  B  and  CD,  each  3£"  long,  and  inclined 
towards  each  other  as  shown.  With  any  point  E  on  CD  as 
a  center,  and  any  convenient  radius,  describe  arc  FIGH', 
with  G  as  a  center  and  same  radius,  describe  arc  H  LEF, 
intersecting  FIG  N  in  //and  F.  With  L  as  a  center, 
and  same  radius,  describe  arc  KGJ\  with  /  as  a  center, 
and  same  radius,  describe  arc  J E K,  intersecting  KGJ 
in  K  and  ./.  Draw  HF  and  J  K\  they  intersect  at  O,  a 
point  on  the  bisecting  line.  With  0  as  a  center,  and  the 


same  or  any  convenient  radius,  describe  an  arc  intersecting 
A  B  and  CD  in  M  and  TV.  With  J/  and  N  as  centers,  and 
any  radius  greater  than  one-half  M  N,  describe  arcs  inter- 
secting at  P.  A  line  drawn  through  O  and  P  is  the  required 
bisecting  line. 

PKOHI  KM  0. — To  divide  a  given  straight  line  into 
any  required  number  of  equal  parts. 

See  Fig.  M  (a\ 

CONSTRUCTION. — //  />  is  the  given  line  315S-//  long.  It  is 
iv<|uiml  to  divide  it  into  eight  equal  parts.  Through  one 
extremity  A  of  the  line,  draw  an  indefinite  straight  line  A  C, 
making  any  angle  with  A  />'.  Set  the  dividers  to  any 


§1 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


35 


K 


T      R 


PON 

FIG.  39  (a). 


M     L 


n 


convenient  distance,  and  space  off  eight  equal  divisions  on 
A  C,  as  A  K,  K  I,  I H,  etc.  Join  C  and  B  by  the  straight 
line  C  B,  and  through  the  points  Dt  E,  F,  G,  etc.  draw 
lines  D  L,  E  M,  etc.  parallel 

to   CB,    by   using   the   two  DS\ 

triangles;  these  parallels  in-  ^'''\      > 

tersect    A  B   in    the    points  rt  %'    \      \     \ 

*Y        *          \         \         > 

L,    M,   N,   etc.,   which    are  u^'  \     \     \     »     \ 

equally  distant  apart.     The 

spaces  L  M,  M  N,  NO,  etc. 

are  each    equal    to  £   A  B. 

Proceed    in   a    similar   way 

for  any  number  of  equal  parts  into  which  A  B  is  to  be 

divided. 

An  important  modification  of  the  method  just  described 

is  shown  in  Fig.  39   (b}.     Draw  A  B  as  before,  and  erect 

the  perpendicular  B  C.     Now   divide   3T7F",  the  length   of 

,o  A  B,  by  8,  the  number 
denoting  the  number  of 
equal  parts  into  which  A  B 
is  to  be  divided,  obtaining 

3   7   "     •     Q     -.      3 "     I         7 


JF 

1 

I  x^ 

" 

x"' 

JJ 

r 

7,- 

•" 

K 

i 

1 

R 

i 

i 

*      C 

'IG. 

>      Jl 
»(*) 

/  J 

t 

f     L 

ding  the  whole  number  and 
the  fraction  separately.  Now 
considering  |"  -f-  ^\^"  to  be 
approximately  equal  to  ^", 
multiply  \"  by  8,  the  number  of  parts  into  which  A  B 
is  to  be  divided;  the  result  is  £"X8  =  4",  which  is  the 
length  of  A  C.  With  A  as  a  center  and  a  radius  equal 
to  4"  describe  an  arc  cutting  B  C  in  C,  and  draw  A  C. 
Then  with  a  scale  lay  off  A  K  =  K I  —  etc.  =  |",  and 
project  K,  /,  //,  etc.  upon  A  B,  in  7",  A',  P,  etc.,  the 
required  points.  The  advantage  of  this  method  over  the 
other  is  that  the  T  square  and  triangle  can  be  used  through- 
out, thus  making  it  very  much  easier  to  draw  the  parallels 
D  Z,  E  M,  etc. 

The  student,  when  drawing  this  plate,  is  at  liberty  to  use 
cither  of  the  two  methods  given  in  this  problem. 


36 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


PROBLEM  7. — To  draw  a  straight  line  through  any 
given  point  on  a  given  straight  line  to  make  any 
required  angle  with  that  line. 

CONSTRUCTION.  —  In  Fig.  40,  A  B  is  the  given  line  3£" 
long,  P  is  the  given  point,  and  E  O  F  is  the  given  angle. 

With  the  vertex  0 
as  a  center,  and  any 
convenient  radius,  de- 
scribe an  arc  EF 
cutting  O  E  and  OF 
in  E  and  F.  With  P 
as  a  center,  and  the 
same  radius,  describe 
an  arc  CD.  With  D 
as  a  center,  and  a  radius  equal  to  the  chord  of  the  arc  E  F", 
describe  an  arc  cutting  CD  in  C.  A  line  drawn  through 
the  points  P  and  C  will  make  an  angle  with  A  B  equal  to 
the  angle  <9,  or  CPD  =  EOF. 

PROBLKM  8. — To  draw  an  equi- 
lateral triangle,  one  side  being 
given. 

CONSTRUCTION. — In  Fig.  41,  A  B 
is  the  given  side  2f"  long.  With  A  B 
as  a  radius,  and  A  and  B  as  centers, 
describe  two  arcs  intersecting  in  C. 
Draw  C  A  and  C  B,  and  C  A  B  is  an  equilateral  triangle. 

PROBLEM  $. — The  altitude  of  an  equilateral  triangle 
being  given,  to  draw  the  triangle. 

CONSTRUCTION. — InFig.42, 
A  B  is  the  altitude  %\"  long. 
Through  the  extremities  of 
A  B  draw  the  parallel  lines 
CD  and  F.  F  perpendicular 
to  A  B.  With  B  as  a  cen- 
ter, and  any  convenient  ra- 
dius, describe  the  semicircle 
C H K D  intersecting  CD  in 


FIG.  41. 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


37 


C  and  D.  With  C  and  D  as  centers,  and  the  same  radius, 
describe  arcs  cutting  the  semicircle  in  H  and  K,  Draw 
B  H  and  B  K,  and  prolong  them  to  meet  E  F  in  E  and  F. 
B  E  F  is  the  required  equilateral  triangle. 

This  problem  finishes  Plate  II.     The  directions  for  inking 
in,  lettering,  etc.  are  the  same  as  for  Plate  I. 


PLATE  III. 

37.  This  plate  is  to  be  divided  up  like  Plates  I  and  II, 
and  the  six  following  problems  are  to  be  drawn  in  a  similar 
manner: 

PROBLEM  10. — Two  sides  and  the  included  angle  of  a 
triangle  being  given,  to  construct  the  triangle. 

CONSTRUCTION. — In  Fig. 
43,  make  the  given  sides 
MN  2|"  long  and  PQ 
\\"  long.  Let  O  be  the 
given  angle.  Draw  A  B, 
and  make  it  equal  in 
length  toPQ.  Make  the 
angle  C  B  A  equal  to  the 
given  angle  O,  and  make 
C  B  equal  in  length  to 
the  line  M ' N.  Draw  CA, 
and  CA  B  is  the  required  triangle. 

PROBLEM  11. — To  draw  a  parallelogram  when  the 
sides  and  one  of  the  angles  are  given. 

CONSTRUCTION.  —  In 
.o  Fig.  44,  make  the  given 
sides  MN  2£/r  long  and 
PQl^"\ong.  Let  O  be 
the  given  angle.  Draw 
A  B  equal  to  M  N,  and 

•  *  draw    B  C,   making    an 

angle    with   A  B  equal 

FIG.  44.  to  the    given    angle  O. 


FIG-  43- 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


Make  B  C  equal  to  PQ.  With  C  as  a  center,  and  a  radius 
equal  to  J/AT,  describe  an  arc  at  D.  With  A  as  a  center, 
and  a  radius  equal  to  PQ,  describe  an  arc  intersecting  the 
other  arc  in  D.  Draw  A  D  and  CD,  and  A  B  C  D  is  the 
required  parallelogram. 

PROBLEM  12.— An  arc  and  its  radius  being  given,  to 
find  the  center. 

CONSTRUCTION.— In  Fig.  45,  A  C  D  B  is  the  arc,  and  M N, 

If"  long,  is  the  radius.  With 
M Na.s  a  radius, and  any  point 
C  in  the  given  arc  as  a  center, 
describe  an  arc  at  0.  With 
any  other  point  D  in  the 
given  arc  as  a  center,  and  the 
same  radius,  describe  an  arc 
intersecting  the  first  in  O. 
Flo  45  0  is  the  required  center. 

PROBLEM  1.3. — To  pass  a  circumference  through  any 
three  points  not  in  the  same  straight  line. 

CONSTRUCTION. — In  Fig.  46,  A,  />',  and  C  are  the  given 
points.  With  A  and  />  as  centers,  and  any 
convenient  radius,  describe  arcs  inter- 
secting each  other  in  K  and  /.  With  B 
and  C  as  centers,  and  any  convenient 
radius,  describe  arcs  intersecting  each  A 
other  in  D  and  R.  Through  /  and  K 
and  through  D  and  /:,  draw  lines  inter- 
secting at  O.  With  O  as  a  center,  and 
OA  as  a  radius,  describe  a  circle;  it 
will  pass  through  A,  B,  and  C.  FIG.  JG. 

PROBLEM  14.  —To  inscribe  a  square  in  a  given  circle. 

CONSTRUCTION. —  In  Fig.  47,  the  circle  A  BCD  is  3-J"  in 
diameter.  Draw  two  diameters,  A  C  and  D  B,  at  right 
angles  to  each  other.  Draw  the  lines  A  B,  B  C,  CD, 
and  DA  joining  the  points  of  intersection  of  these  diameters 


! 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


with  the  circumference  of  the  circle,  and  they  will  be  the 
sides  of  the  square. 


FIG.  48. 


PROBLEM  15. — To  inscribe  a  regular  hexagon  in  a 
given  circle. 

CONSTRUCTION. — In  Fig.  48,  from  O  as  a  center,  with  the 
dividers  set  to  If",  describe  the  circle  A  B C D R  P.  Draw 
the  diameter  D  O  A,  and  from  the  points  D  and  A,  with  the 
dividers  set  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  circle,  describe 
arcs  intersecting  the  circle  at  E,  C,  F,  and  B.  Join  these 
points  by  straight  lines,  and  they  will  form  the  sides  of  the 
hexagon.  This  problem  completes  Plate  III. 


PLATE  IV. 

38.  The  first  four  problems  on  this  plate  are  more  diffi- 
cult than  any  on  the  preceding  plates  and  will  require  very 
careful  construction.  All  the  sides  of  each  polygon  must  be 
of  exactly  the  same  length,  so  that  they  will  space  around 
evenly  with  the  dividers.  The  figures  should  not  be  inked 
in  until  the  pencil  construction  is  done  accurately.  The 
preliminary  directions  for  this  plate  are  the  same  as  for  the 
preceding  ones. 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


§1 


PROBLEM   10. — To  inscribe  a  regular   pentagon  in    a 
given  circle. 

CONSTRUCTION.— In  Fig.  40,  from  O  as  a  center,  with  the 

dividers  set  to  If",  describe 
the  circle  A  B  CD.  Draw  the 
two  diameters  A  C  and  D  B 
at  right  angles  to  each  other. 
Bisect  one  of  the  radii,  as  0  B, 
at  /.  With  /  as  a  center,  and 
I A  as  a  radius,  describe  the 
arc  A J  cutting  DO  at  /. 
With  A  as  a  center,  and  A  J 
as  a  radius,  describe  an  arc 
J  H  cutting  the  circumference 
at  H.  The  chord  A  H  is  one 
side  of  the  pentagon. 

PROBLEM  IT. — To    inscribe    a    regular   octagon    in    a 
given  circle. 

CONSTRUCTION. — In  Fig.  50,  from  O  as  a  center,  with  the 
dividers  set  to  If",  describe 
the  circle  ABCDhFGH. 
Draw  the  two  diameters  A  E 
and  G  C  at  right  angles  to 
each  other.  Bisect  one  of  the 
four  equal  arcs,  as  A  G  at  //, 
and  draw  the  diameter//  O  D. 
Bisect  another  of  the  equal 
arcs,  as  A  C  at  B,  and  draw 
the  diameter  B  O  F.  Straight 
lines  drawn  from  A  to  B, 
from  B  to  C,  etc.,  will  form 
the  required  octagon. 

PROBLEM  18. — To  inscribe  a  regular  polygon  of  any 
number  of  sides  in  a  given  circle. 


CONSTRUCTION.— In  Fig.  51,  from  O  as  a  center,  with  the 


8  1 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


41 


dividers  set  to  If",  describe  the  circle  A  7  C D.  Draw  the 
two  diameters  D7  and  A  C  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 
Divide  the  diameter  Dl  into  as 
many  equal  parts  as  the  polygon 
has  sides  (in  this  case  seven). 
Prolong  the  diameter  A  C  and 
make  8' A  equal  to  three-fourths 
of  the  radius  O  A.  Through 
3'  and  2,  the  second  division  from 
D  on  the  diameter  D  7,  draw  the 
line  3'  7,  cutting  the  circumfer- 
ence at  /.  Draw  the  chord  D  /,  and 
it  is  one  side  of  the  required  poly- 
gon. The  others  may  be  spaced 
off  around  the  circumference. 

PROBLEM  10. — The  side  of  a  regular   polygon   being 
given,  to  construct  the  polygon. 

CONSTRUCTION. — In  Fig.  52,  let  A  Cbe  the  given  side.     If 
the  polygon  is  to  have  eight  sides,  the  line  A  C  should  be, 

for  this  plate,  \\"  long.  Pro- 
duce A  C  to  B.  From  C  as  cen- 
ter, with  a  radius  equal  to  C  A, 
describe  the  semicircle  A  123  4 
567B,  and  divide  it  into  as 
many  equal  parts  as  there  are 
sides  in  the  required  polygon 
(in  this  case  eight).  From  the 
point  C,  and  through  the  second 
division  from  B,  as  6,  draw  the 
straight  line  C6.  Bisect  the 
lines  A  C  and  C6  by  perpendiculars  intersecting  in  O. 
From  O  as  a  center,  and  with  O  C  as  a  radius,  describe  the 
circle  CAHGFED6.  From  C,  and  through  the  points 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5  in  the  semicircle,  draw  lines  C  H,  C  G,  CF,  etc. 
meeting  the  circumference.  Joining  the  points  6  and  D, 
D  and  E,  E  and  F,  etc.  by  straight  lines,  will  complete  the 
required  polygon. 


FlG.  52. 


i  : 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


PROI.I.IM  ^o.  To  find  an  arc  of  a  circle  having  a 
known  radius,  which  shall  be  equal  in  length  to  a 
given  straight  line. 

NOTK.— There  is  no  exact  method,  but  the  following  approximate 
method  is  close  enough  for  all  practical  purposes,  when  the  required 
arc  does  not  exceed  J  of  the  circumference. 

CONSTRUCTION. — In  Fig.  53,  let  A  C  be  the  given  line 
At  A,  erect  the  perpendicular  A  O,  and  make  it 

equal  in  length  to  the 
given  radius,  say  4"  long. 
With  OA  as  a  radius, 
and  O  as  a  center,  de- 
scribe the  arc  ABE. 
Divide  A  C  into  four 
equal  parts,  A  D  being 
the  first  of  these  parts, 
counting  from  A.  With 
D  as  a  center,  and  a 
radius  D  C,  describe  the 
arc  C  B  intersecting 

ABE  in  B.     The  length  of  the  arc  A  B  very  nearly  equals 

the  length  of  the  straight  line  A  C. 

PROBLEM  21.  — An  arc  of  a  circle  being  given,  to 
find  a  straight  line  of  the  same  length. 

This  is  also  an  approximate 
method,  but  close  enough  for 
practical  purposes,  when  the 
arc  does  not  exceed  ^  of  the 
circumference. 

CONSTRUCTION. — In  Fig.  54, 
let  A  B  be  the  given  arc;  find 
the  center  O  of  the  arc,  and 
draw  the  radius  O  A.  For  this 
problem,  choose  the  arc  so  that 
the  radius  will  not  exceed  1|". 


» 


FIG.  54. 


At  A,  draw  A  C  perpen- 


dicular  to  the  radius  (and,  of  course,   tangent  to  the  arc). 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


43 


Draw  the  chord  A  />,  and  prolong  it  to  D,  so  that  A  D  =  \ 
the  chord  y2  Z>.  With  D  as  a  center,  and  a  radius  D  B, 
describe  the  arc  B  C  cutting  A  C  in  C.  AC  will  be  very 
nearly  equal  to  the  arc  A  B. 


PIRATE  V. 

39.  On  this  plate  there  arc  five  problems  instead  of  six. 
It  should  be  divided  into  six  equal  parts  or  divisions,  as  the 
previous  ones.  The  two  right-hand  end  divisions  are  used 
to  draw  in  the  last  figure  of  Plate  V,  which  is  too  large  to  put 
in  one  division.  • 


which 


PROBLEM  22.  —  To  draw  an  egg-shaped  oval. 

CONSTRUCTION.  —  In  Fig.  55,  on  the  diameter  A 
is  2f"  long,  describe  a  circle 
ACBG.  Through  the  center  O, 
draw  O  C  perpendicular  to  A  B, 
cutting  the  circumference  ACBG 
in  C.  Draw  the  straight  lines 
B  C  F  and  A  C  E.  With  B  and  A 
as  centers,  and  the  diameter  A  B 
as  a  radius,  describe  arcs  termina- 
ting in  D  and  //,  the  points  of  inter- 
section with  B  F  and  A  E.  With 
C  as  a  center,  and  CD  as  a  radius, 
describe  the  arc  D  H.  The  curve 
A  D  H  B  G  is  the  required  oval.  Fin  55 

PROBLEM  23.  —  To  draw  an  ellipse,  the  diameters  being 
given.  The  exact  method. 

CONSTRUCTION.  —  In  Fig.  56,  let  B  D,  the  long  diameter, 
or  major  axis,  which  is  3-|"  long,  and  A  C,  the  short  diameter, 
or  minor  axis,  which  is  2^"  long,  intersect  at  right  angles 
to  each  other  in  the  center  (?,  so  that  DO—  OB  and 
A  O  —  O  C.  With  O  as  a  center,  and  O  C  as  a  radius, 
describe  a  circle;  with  the  same  center,  and  O  D  as  a  radius, 
describe  another  circle.  Divide  both  circles  into  the  same 


44 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


FIG.  56. 


number  of  equal  parts,  as  1-2,  2-3,  etc.  This  is  best  done 
by  first  dividing  the  larger  circle  into  the  required  number 
of  parts,  beginning  at  the  center  line  A  C,  and  then  draw- 
ing radial  lines  through  the  points  of  division  on  this  circle, 

to  the  center  O  of  the  cir- 
cles, as  shown  in  the  upper 
right-hand  quarter  of  the 
figure.  The  radial  lines  will 
divide  the  smaller  circle  into 
the  same  number  of  parts 
that  the  larger  one  has  been 
divided  into.  Through  the 
points  of  division  on  the 
smaller  circle,  draw  hori- 
zontal lines,  and,  through  the 
points  of  division  on  the 
larger  circle,  draw  vertical  lines;  the  points  of  intersection 
of  these  lines  are  points  on  the  ellipse.  Thus,  the  horizon- 
tal line  3  c  and  the  vertical  line  Sc  intersecting  at  c  give  the 
point  c  of  the  ellipse.  Trace  a  curve  through  the  points 
thus  found  by  placing  an  irregular  curve  on  the  drawing  in 
such  a  manner  that  one  of  its  bounding  lines  will  pass 
through  three  or  more  points,  judging  with  the  eye  whether 
the  curve  so  traced  bulges  out  too  much  or  is  too  flat. 
Then  adjust  the  curve  again,  so  that  its  bounding  line  will 
pass  through  several  more  points,  and  so  on,  until  the 
curve  is  completed.  Care  should  be  taken  to  make  all 
changes  in  curvature  as  gradual  as  possible,  and  all  curves 
drawn  in  this  manner  should  be  drawn  in  pencil  before 
being  inked  in.  It  requires  considerable  practice  to  be  able 
to  draw  a  good  curved  line  in  this  manner  by  means  of  an 
irregular  curve,  and  the  general  appearance  of  a  curve  thus 
drawn  depends  a  great  deal  upon  the  student's  taste  and  the 
accuracy  of  his  eye. 

PKOHLKM  24. — To  draw  an  ellipse  by  circular  arcs. 

This  is  not  a  true  ellipse,  but  is  very  convenient  for  many 
purposes. 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


45 


CONSTRUCTION. — In  Fig.  57,  use  the  same  dimensions  as 
before.  On  the  major  axis  A  B,  set  off  A  a  —  C  D,  the  minor 
axis,  and  divide  a  B 
into  three  equal  parts. 
With  0  as  a  center, 
and  a  radius  equal  to 
the  length  of  two  of 
these  parts,  describe 
arcs  cutting  A  B  in  d 
and  d '.  Upon  d  d'  as 
a  side,  construct  two 
equilateral  triangles 
dbd'on&db'd'.  With 
b  as  a  center,  and  a 
radius  equal  to  b  D, 
describe  the  arc  gDf 

intersecting  b  df  and  b  d'  g  in  f  and  g.  With  the  same 
radius,  and  b'  as  a  center,  describe  the  arc  c  C  e  intersect- 
ing b'd'c  and  b'de  in  c  and  e.  With  A  and  B  as  centers, 
and  a  radius  equal  to  the  chord  of  the  arcs  A  c  or  B  e,  describe 
arcs  cutting  A  B  very  near  to  d'  and  d.  From  the  points  of 
intersection  of  these  arcs  with  A  B  as  centers,  and  the  same 
radius,  describe  the  arcs  c  A  g  and  e  B  f. 

PROBLEM  25. — To  draw  a  parabola,  the  axis  and  long- 
est double  ordlnate  being  given. 

EXPLANATION. — The  curve  shown  in  Fig.  58  is  called  a 
parabola.  This  curve  and  the  ellipse  are  the  bounding  line 
of  certain  sections  of  a  cone.  The  line  O  A,  which  bisects 
the  area  included  between  the  curve  and  the  line  B  C,  is  called 
the  axis.  Any  line,  B  A  or  A  C,  drawn  perpendicular  to  OA, 
and  whose  length  is  included  between  O  A  and  the  curve,  is 
called  an  ordinate.  Any  line,  as  B  C,  both  of  whose  extrem- 
ities rest  on  the  curve,  and  is  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  is 
called  a  double  ordinate.  Point  O  is  called  the  vertex. 

CONSTRUCTION. — Make  the  axis  O  A  equal  to  3|",  and  the 
longest  double  ordinate  BC  equal  to  3*.  Z>A,  of  course, 
equals  A  C.  Draw  D  E  through  the  other  extremity  of  the 


40  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  §1 

axis  and  perpendicular  to  it;  also  draw  B  D  and  C Ji  par- 
allel to  OA  and  intersecting/^/:  in  D  and  /:.  Divide  DB 
and  A  B  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts,  as  shown 
(in  this  case  six);  through  the  vertex  'O,  draw  0  1,  O2,  etc. 
to  the  points  of  division  on  D  B,  and  through  the  corre- 


sponding  points  J,  2,  etc.,  on  A  />,  draw  lines  parallel  to  the 
axis.  The  points  of  intersection  of  these  lines.  #,  b,  c,  etc. , 
are  points  on  the  curve,  through  which  it  may  be  traced. 
In  a  similar  manner,  draw  the  lower  half  O fg)i  il C  of  the 
curve. 

PROBLKM  20. — To  draw  a  helix,  the  pitch  and  the 
diameter  being  given. 

EXIM.ANA nox. — The  helix  is  a  curve  formed  by  a  point 
moving  around  a  cylinder  and  at  the  same  time  advancing 
along  its  length  a  certain  distance;  this  forms  the  winding 
curved  line  shown  in  Fig.  50.  The  center  line  A  O,  drawn 
through  the  cylinder,  is  called  the  axis  of  the  helix,  and  any 
line  perpendicular  to  the  axis  and  terminated  by  the  helix  is 
of  the  same  length,  being  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  cylinder. 
The  distance  />  /..'  that  the  point  advances  lengthwise  during 
one  revolution  is  called  the  pitch. 


§1 


GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING. 


47 


CONSTRUCTION. — As  mentioned  before,  this  figure  occupies 
two  spaces  of  the  plate.  The  diameter  of  the  cylinder  is 
3^-",  the  pitch  is  2",  and  a  turn  and  a  half  of  the  helix  is  to 
be  shown.  The  rectangle  FB  E  D  is  a  side  view  of  the 
cylinder,  and  the  circle  1'  2'  8'  4',  etc.  is  a  bottom  view.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  one-half  of  a  turn  of  the  helix  is  shown 


dotted;  this  is  because  that  part  of  it  is  on  the  other  side  of 
the  cylinder,  and  cannot  be  seen.  Lines  that  are  hidden  are 
drawn  dotted.  Draw  the  axis  O  A  in  the  center  of  the  space. 
Draw  FD,  3£"  long  and  4*  from  the  top  border  line;  on  it 
construct  a  rectangle  whose  height  F B  —  *r.  Take  the 
center  O  of  the  circle  2f  *  below  the  point  //  on  the  axis  A  O, 
and  describe  a  circle  having  a  diameter  of  3^"  equal  to  the 


48  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  §  1 

diameter  of  the  cylinder.  Lay  off  the  pitch  from  B  to  12 
equal  to  2",  and  divide  it  into  a  convenient  number  of  equal 
parts  (in  this  case  12),  and  divide  the  circle  into  the  same 
number  of  equal  parts,  beginning  at  one  extremity  of  the 
diameter  12'  O  6",  drawn  parallel  to  BE.  At  the  point  1'  on 
the  circle  divisions,  erect  I'-l'  perpendicular  to  B  E\  through 
the  point  1  of  the  pitch  divisions,  draw  1-1'  parallel  to  B  E, 
intersecting  the  perpendicular  in  1',  which  is  a  point  on  the 
helix.  Through  the  point  2',  erect  a  perpendicular  2' -2', 
intersecting  2-2'  in  3',  which  is  another  point  on  the  helix. 
So  proceed  until  the  point  6  is  reached;  from  here  on,  until 
the  point  12  of  the  helix  is  reached,  the  curve  will  be  dotted. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the  points  of  division  7',  8',  9',  10f,  and 
11'  on  the  circle  are  directly  opposite  the  points  5',  4',  $',  2', 
and  1 ';  hence,  it  was  not  necessary  to  draw  the  lower  half  of 
the  circle,  since  the  point  5'  could  have  been  the  starting 
point,  and  the  operation  could  have  been  conducted  back- 
wards to  find  the  points  on  the  dotted  upper  half  of  the  helix. 
The  other  full-curved  line  of  the  helix  can  be  drawn  in 
exactly  the  same  manner  as  the  first  half. 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


INTRODUCTION. 

1.  History  of  Ornament. — The  history  of  ornament  in 
architecture  and  the  technical  arts  antedates  all  written  his- 
tory. One  of  the  strongest  characteristics  of  even  the  most 
savage  tribes  is  their  attempt  at  ornamental  design,  expressed 
in  rude  carving,  or  in  the  painting  of  their  bodies,  weapons, 
or  utensils.  To  this  instinct  may  be  ascribed  the  habit  of 
tattooing  practiced  by  many  uncivilized  nations,  whereby 
they  essayed  to  increase  the  expression  of  terror  of  coun- 
tenance, and  create  what  appeared  to  them  an  additional 
beauty.  Uncivilized  man  has  always  been  a  warrior,  and 
as  such  he  ranked  with  his  fellow  man  according  to  the 
bravery  he  exhibited  before  his  friends,  and  the  fear  with 
which  he  inspired  his  enemies.  For  this  reason  nothing 
appeared  beautiful  to  the  savage,  unless  it  possessed  some 
element  of  the  terrible  or  the  supernatural.  As  man 
becomes  civilized  his  tendency  in  ornamental  design  leans 
toward  the  reproduction  of  natural  forms,  and  his  self-glori- 
fication gives  way  to  the  desire  to  glorify  the  works  of  his 
Creator.  Therefore,  we  always  see  some  attempt  to  com- 
bine in  the  design  some  form  from  the  animal  or  vegetable 
world,  suggestive  of  the  beneficence  of  Providence. 

Ornamentation  is  thus  seen  to  precede  architecture  histor- 
ically, but  it  was  the  art  of  building  that  afforded  the  grand- 
est field  for  its  development  and  application.  The  noblest 
achievements  in  the  technical  arts  have  been  produced 

§2 

For  notice  of  the  copyright,  see  page  immediately  following  the  title  page. 


2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

in  the  service  of  architecture;  and  in  all  art  industries, 
even  wherein  ornamentation  seems  to  follow  an  independent 
existence  of  its  own,  its  products  are  in  harmony  with  the 
contemporary  taste  and  tendency  of  architecture.  The  his- 
torical style  and  development,  and  the  technical  execution 
of  ornament,  whether  carved,  painted,  or  woven,  are  thus 
seen  to  be  inextricably  interwoven  with  the  history  of  archi- 
tecture and  the  sister  arts. 

*2.  A  JJmwinjjr. — A  drawing  is  the  expression  of  an 
idea  by  means  of  a  picture ;  therefore,  to  draw  an  object  is 
to  represent  it  with  all  its  characteristic  features.  Some 
ideas  can  be  expressed  clearly  in  writing,  but  others  require 
a  drawing  in  order  to  convey  them  to  the  mind.  Drawing 
is  not  designing  but  is  the  means  by  which  we  express 
our  ideas  in  design  to  one  another.  It  would  thus  appear 
that,  to  teach  the  drawing  of  ornament  in  a  comprehensive 
way,  we  should  at  the  same  time  teach  all  about  its  design 
and  application;  but  experience  has  proved  that  such  a 
course  complicates  the  work  of  elementary  instruction,  and 
is  only  adapted  to  those  that  have  already  learned  to  draw 
well,  and  that  know  something  about  design  in  general. 
The  subject  must  be  divided,  and  for  those  that  just  enter 
upon  its  study  it  is  best  to  first  learn  how  to  draw,  and  then 
devote  their  energies  entirely  to  the  study  of  how  to  design. 

This  is  the  scope  and  aim  of  this  Paper.  In  a  series 
of  carefully  graded  exercises,  the  student  is  led  from  the 
simple  straight  line  to  the  more  difficult  problems,  and 
the  lessons  are  confined  at  first  to  outline  drawing,  the 
object  being  to  develop,  in  the  shortest  possible  time,  such 
ready  facility  of  the  hand  and  judgment  of  the  eye  as  will 
enable  him  to  correctly  draw  any  outline  whatever. 

Notwithstanding  this  program  of  making  this  course  essen- 
tially one  of  draining  Itssons,  the  text  is  enriched  with  expla- 
nations of  the  problems  presented,  to  stimulate  the  student's 
interest  in  his  work.  Information  thus  obtained,  gradually 
gn.ws  together  in  the  student's  mind,  and  enables  him  to 
more  readily  comprehend  the  subject  he  has  in  hand. 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  3 

3.  Ornament  is  either  the  embellishment  of  a  structural 
feature,  accentuating  its  form  and  purpose,  in  which  case  it 
is  usually  carved  or  molded  in  relief,  or  the  ornament  con- 
sists of  a  flat-surface  decoration,  such  as  a  carpet  pattern, 
wall  paper,  or  a  painted  design.     Ornament  consists  of  a 
combination  of  straight  and  curved  lines,  independent,  or 
joined  with  vegetable  or  animal  forms,  or  exclusively  of  the 
latter— with  or  without  color  decoration.     Some  ornament 
is  purely  geometrical  in  character,  and  can  be  drawn  entirely 
with  instruments;  other  is  partly  freehand  and  partly  geo- 
metrical work;  and  the  remainder  is  entirely  freehand  work. 
Ornamental  drawing  includes  the  rendering  of  form  itself, 
being  the  representation  of  such  graceful  lines  as  exist  in 
the  animal  and  vegetable  world,   and  also  those  of  man's 
own  invention,  as  seen  in  the  architectural  moldings,  in  the 
sweeps  and  curves  of  furniture,  in  the  scrolls  and  twists  of 
wrought-iron -work;  and  in  the  outlines  of  pottery,   glass- 
ware, cutlery,  vehicles,  ships,  machinery,  etc.     For  instance, 
in  an  ornamental  vase  or  a  wrought-iron  grille,  the  general 
form  and  the  graceful  lines  and  proportion  of  its  parts  are 
as  much  subject  for  ornamental  drawing  as  is  any  individual 
ornament  with  which  a  part  of  either  of  these  objects  may 
be  decorated. 

4.  How  to  Draw. — The  making  of  a  drawing  can  be 
said  to  consist  of  two  parts,  namely,  the  making  of  the  indi- 
vidual  lines    and    the   composition.     Straight   and   curved 
lines  must  be  drawn  in  strokes,  and  not  in  dots  nor  in  a  suc- 
cession%of  short  scratches.     The  strokes  must  not  be  jerky 
nor  detached,  but  continuous,  each  one  being  a  continuation 
of  the  preceding  one,  and  as  long  as  one  unconstrained  move- 
ment of  the  finger  joints  will  make  them,  which  is  about 
|  inch.     No  other  method  maintains  so  well  the  direction  of 
the  lines  to  be  drawn,  nor  develops  so  readily  the  pliability 
of  the  hand  and  the  judgment  of  the  eye  by  fastening  the 
attention  of  both  on  the  making  of  a  continuous  line,  instead 
of  on  the  making  of  the  pieces  of  a  line. 

In  ordinary  drawing  the  elbow  may  be  rested  on  any  part 


4  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

of  the  drawing  board  that  the  case  may  require;  but  the  ball 
of  the  hand  should  be  as  free  as  possible,  in  which  position 
the  hand  will  rest  and  travel  along  lightly  on  the  first  joint 
of  the  little  finger. 

The  pencil  recommended  for  practice  is  one  corresponding 
to  grade  "  S  M  "  of  the  Dixon  brand,  but  the  final  work  on 
the  drawing  plates  should  be  executed  with  a  harder  pencil. 
For  aiding  in  the  work,  a  soft  waffle,  or  multiplex,  rubber 
may  be  used  to  advantage,  to  clean  up  the  drawing  after  the 
sketch  is  completed  and  just  previous  to  the  process  of 
inking  in.  The  final  pencil  lines  must  be  firm  and  clean, 
but  not  heavy;  and,  if  any  corrections  are  necessary,  an 
ordinary  white  Fabcr's  rubber  should  be  used.  The  student 
should  keep  a  uniform  round  pencil  point,  of  medium  length, 
and  avoid  frequent  sharpening,  but  maintain  a  good  point 
by  turning  the  pencil  as  he  works.  Avoid  cheap  pencils; 
they  are  a  delusion  as  to  economy,  and  their. common  lead 
smears  up  the  drawing.  Three  golden  rules  to  be  observed 
by  the  student  are :  Never  wet  the  pencil ;  never  use  a  very 
hard  pencil ;  never  use  a  short  pencil.  The  pencil  should 
not  be  less  than  5  inches  long,  in  order  that  it  may  rest 
against  the  knuckle  of  the  forefinger. 

The  eye  must  guide  the  hand  in  drawing,  but  should  not 
be  riveted  too  closely  upon  the  pencil  or  drawing  pen ;  a 
glance  forwards  and  backwards  over  the  work,  to  compare 
the  form  of  the  design  and  the  direction  of  the  lines,  will 
enable  the  student  to  keep  his  work  close  to  the  original, 
which  is  all  that  is  at  present  desired. 

The  draftsman,  sitting  at  work,  should  avoid  bending  over 
the  drawing  in  a  cramped  position,  as  it  is  likely  to  injure 
his  eyesight,  and  will  in  no  way  benefit  his  work.  An  easy, 
natural  attitude  is  the  best.  All  subjects  should  be  outlined 
in  their  normal  aspect,  not  upside  down  nor  sideways,  the 
paper  being  straight  in  front  of  the  draftsman ;  but,  in  the 
final  rendering,  especially  when  a  drawing  is  to  be  inked 
in,  there  is  no  objection  to  turning  the  sheet  or  the  body 
around,  to  make  the  work  more  convenient  and  thus  produce 
perfect  lines. 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  5 

5.  Composition. — This  element  of  a  drawing  consists 
of  the  general  grouping  of  the  lines  and  masses  of  the 
design,  according  to  the  size  or  scale  to  which  the  drawing 
is  made. 

Before  beginning  to  draw  a  figure,  its  general  effect  and 
characteristic  shape  as  a  whole  should  be  carefully  observed. 
The  individual  forms,  the  curves,  and  scrolls,  and  the  cut  of 
the  foliage  should  then  be  studied ;  and  its  symmetry  and 
the  proportion  of  its  parts,  and  the  direction  of  its  move- 
ment, should  be  borne  in  mind  during  the  entire  process  of 
sketching  it  in.  As  to  the  size  of  the  drawing  in  relation  to 
the  copy,  model,  or  natural  object,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that 
some  definite  scale  of  enlargement  or  reduction  should  be 
followed,  so  that  every- 
thing shall  be  maintained 
in  equal  relative  propor- 
tion. In  beginning  to 
draw  an  object,  first  lay 
out  the  extreme  outline, 
as  in  Fig.  1 ;  then  locate 
all  the  principal  points  of 
extent  and  position  by 
measuring  from  the  base 
and  center  lines.  The 

extreme  outline  should  be  composed  of  a  few  straight  lines 
so  arranged  as  to  enclose  the  object  in  an  irregular  geo- 
metrical figure.  The  curves  and  other  details  of  the  object 
may  then  be  rounded  in  at  the  angles  of  the  geometrical 
figure,  as  shown.  For  this  measuring  and  locating,  extreme 
exactitude  is  not  required;  there  should,  in  fact,  be  as  little 
mechanical  measuring  as  the  student  can  get  along  with,  all 
minor  details  being  gauged  by  the  eye.  Use  the  eye  as 
much  as  possible,  in  order  that  it  may  become  trained  to 
judge  correctly  of  absolute  and  relative  sizes,  of  form  and 
proportion.  The  value  of  this  accomplishment  to  the  drafts- 
man and  designer  cannot  be  overestimated.  Since  the 
object  of  the  student  is  to  learn  to  draw,  and,  in  a  measure, 
to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  ornament,  the  above  points  are  of 


G  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

far  greater  importance  to  him  than  the  mere  act  of  repeat- 
ing- or  copying  of  lines,  and  the  purpose  of  this  course  is  not 
to  make  copyists  of  the  students,  but  to  make  draftsmen 
and  designers  of  them. 

The  same  spirit  applies  to  the  drawing  of  the  two  halves 
of  any  symmetrical  ornament.  Except  in  the  main  points  of 
the  design,  no  absolute  identity  of  the  two  halves  is  to  be 
attempted;  there  is  no  artistic  necessity  for  such,  either  in 
drawings  or  in  executed  work.  If  some  little  inequalities 
appear  in  the  two  halves  of  some  scroll  or  foliage  work,  leave 
them  alone  and  remember  that  good  ornament  is  enhanced  in 
value,  rather  than  depreciated,  by  the  absence  of  constraint 
or  of  stiff  regularity.  The  individuality  of  the  designer, 
carver,  or  painter  shows  itself  in  such  matters,  and  gives 
character  to  his  work. 

There  is  another  very  important  point  to  be  observed  in 
the  drawing  of  symmetrical  figures.  Never  draw  one  half 
complete  by  itself  and  then  the  other  half;  lay  the  whole 
ornament  out  as  one  figure  and  finish  it  up  simultaneously. 
Above  all,  never  trace  ^one  half  of  an  ornament  to  produce 
the  other  half.  This  method  of  working  is  permissible  in 
offices  and  shops,  on  the  part  of  experienced  draftsmen,  and 
will  be  explained  in  future  work,  but  must  be  absolutely 
avoided  by  the  student  in  freehand  drawing.  Let  him 
remember  that  he  is  learning  to  drar^>,  and  nothing  will 
train  either  hand  or  eye  as  well  as  constant  practice  and 
redrawing  the  same  thing. 

(>.  While  the  use  of  drawing  instruments  and  mechanical 
appliances  is  necessary  in  blocking  out  the  preliminary  work 
of  any  design,  the  design  itself  must  in  nearly  all  cases  be 
executed  freehand,  or  at  least  partially  so.  For  this  reason, 
the  work  in  this  course  will  be  entirely  freehand.  The  stu- 
dent is  urged  to  practice  constantly  on  other  work  than  these 
plates,  so  that  his  hand  may  become  subtle  and  his  style 
systematic  and  individualized. 

In  hvdiand  drawing,  the  work  may  be  executed  with  one 
i-f  several  materials,  as  explained  below,  but  only  three 


S  ;>  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  ? 

methods  will  be  considered  herein,  as  these  three  are  the  ones 
most  frequently  used  and  the  only  ones  necessary  except  in 
special  cases.  The  most  common  method  of  drawing  is  with 
lead  pencil,  and  the  object  is  either  drawn  in  outline,  as 
indicated  at  (a)  and  (If),  Fig.  2,  or  shaded  as  at  (f).  If  an 
outline  drawing,  the  object  may  be  expressed  in  lines  con- 
forming to  the  actual  contour  of  the  object  itself,  as  at  (a), 
or  it  may  be  drawn  as  it  appears  to  the  eye,  as  at  (b).  In 


(a) 


the  former  case  the  drawing  is  called  an  elevation  of  the 
object,  and  the  latter  is  a.  perspective  view. 

Now,  though  the  elevation  of  an  object  is  of  vast  impor- 
tance to  the  designer,  he  rarely  expresses  an  object  that  way 
in  design ;  unless  the  character  of  the  work  actually  demands 
it — for  instance,  where  the  design  is  of  a  vase  or  pitcher  that 
is  to  be  thrown  or  spun  in  metal,  it  is  sometimes  necessary 
that  the  spinner  should  have  an  elevation  of  the  object  in 
order  that  he  may  spin  it  to  the  proper  outline;  but,  where 
a  design  is  to  be  reproduced  by  printing,  weaving,  carving, 
etc.,  the  original  drawing  represents  the  design  just  as  the 
reproduction  is  to  appear.  Elevations  are  usually  drawn 
mechanically,  while  perspectives  are  in  nearly  all  cases  exe- 
cuted more  or  less  freehand.  Mechanical  drawings  are  exe- 
cuted to  scale,  or  in  exact  proportion  according  to  measured 
dimensions.  Freehand  drawings  are  executed  entirely  with 
the  unaided  hand,  and  measured  by  the  judgment  of  the 


8  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §2 

eye.  The  expert  designer  uses  eye  measurement  almost 
exclusively,  and  the  student  is  here  advised  to  pay  particu- 
lar attention  to  this  branch  of  his  study,  as  it  will  be  indis- 
pensable to  him  hereafter. 

Drawings  are  also  executed  with  pen  and  ink,  in  which 
case  the  general  appearance  is  the  same  as  in  pencil;  the 
method  of  execution  is  different,  however,  as  will  be 
explained  later  on.  In  fact,  in  the  majority  of  cases  a 
drawing  is  outlined  in  pencil,  and  then  inked  over  and 
shaded  with  the  pen. 

The  third  method  of  drawing,  described  in  this  course,  is 
with  the  brush.  This  is  the  method  used  most  extensively 
by  all  designers.  Its  use  is  limited  to  freehand  work,  but  its 
application  is  extended  to  designs  in  color  and  mezzotint. 


THE  PLATE  EXERCISES. 

7.  The  plates  are  to  be  drawn  on  the  same  size  of  paper 
(14  in.  X  18  in.)  as  was  used  in  Geometrical  Dr diving.  The 
student  should  draw  each  of  the  exercises  several  times 
before  he  attempts  the  plate  he  will  send  in  to  the  Schools 
for  correction,  as  these  plates  are  considered  examinations 
to  determine  how  carefully  the  student  has  studied  the 
text  and  practiced  his  exercises.  This  preliminary  work 
need  be  drawn  in  pencil  only,  on  a  good  quality  of  brown 
paper  that  will  withstand  rubbing.  Draw  all  the  figures 
of  one  plate  and  complete  it  before  beginning  to  ink  it  in, 
and  do  not  attempt  to  ink  it  until  you  have  practiced  ink- 
ing on  separate  pieces  of  paper.  For  fine  lines  in  freehand 
work,  use  a  Gillott's  No.  404  pen,  in  a  smooth,  round,  long 
holder  without  swell  or  taper.  For  heavy  lines  a  coarser  pen 
should  be  used.  In  regard  to  curves,  it  is  generally  best  and 
easiest  to  ink  them  freehand,  but  in  some  cases,  which  will 
be  pointed  out  as  we  progress  in  the  work,  they  may  be  inked 
with  instruments  by  combining  arcs  of  circles  with  the  lines 
of  irregular  curves. 

When  inking,  keep  the  hands  and  tools  clean,  wipe  the  pen 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  9 

clean  before  each  dip  into  the  ink,  and  keep  the  bottle  corked 
to  exclude  dust.  When  using  stick  India  ink,  ground  on  a 
slab,  occasionally  add  a  drop  of  water  to  keep  it  of  equal  shade 
and  fluidity.  The  prepared  ink  provided  with  the  designing 
outfit  will  require  no  diluting  if  it  is  kept  constantly  corked. 

8.  To  the  Student. — We  realize  that  this  work  goes 
out  to  young  men  and  women  of  varying  degrees  of  ability, 
diligence,  and  opportunity;  the  exercises  that  will  appear 
simple  to  one  will  prove  difficult  to  another.  To  those  of 
decided  natural  ability,  we  say;  "Be  diligent;  keep  at  it  in 
the  regular  order;  do  not  think  too  soon  that  you  know  it  all, 
or  that  you  can  disregard  our  instructions,  or  become  care- 
less." To  those  others  whom  nature  has  not  so  kindly 
endowed,  but  who  have  an  earnest  wish  to  learn,  we  say: 
"Be  not  discouraged  by  early  difficulties;  you  are  learning 
everyday;  your  hand  is  becoming  more  supple  and  your  eye 
more  observant  with  each  new  exercise;  try  to  realize  that 
you  are  studying  not  only  a  useful,  but  an  artistic,  and  also 
a  difficult  accomplishment,  something  worthy  of  your  greatest 
efforts  and  unswerving  perseverance.  These  staying  qualities, 
joined  to  but  a  medium  grade  of  talent,  often  succeed  where 
greater  abilities,  joined  to  indolence  and  restlessness,  result 
in  failure.  It  sometimes  takes  years  for  the  child  to  learn 
to  write,  but  he  finally  learns,  while  the  adult,  better  appre- 
ciating the  value  of  the  accomplishment,  may  acquire  the 
same  knowledge  in  a  few  months.  Patience,  perseverance, 
and  constant  practice  are  necessary  in  all  cases,  and  lie  wJio 
can  learn  to  write  can  learn  to  draw,  as  the  principle  is  the 
same  in  both  accomplishments." 


DRAWING    PLATE,  TITLE:  LINEAR    ELEMEXTS. 

9.  This  drawing  plate  consists  of  21  figures,  each  of 
which  the  student  should  be  able  to  execute  perfectly  with- 
out other  aid  than  the  directions  herewith  given.  The  suc- 
ceeding plates  will  each  contain  some  detail  or  element,  the 


10 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


instruction  for  which  can  be  traced  back  through  the  prece- 
ding plates  to  this  one.  //  is  absolutely  necessary,  therefore, 
that  the  student  should  be  perfect  in  every  detail  of  each  plate 
before  attempting  the  next  one.  The  figures  on  this  plate  are 
simple  lines  and  combinations  of  lines  to  produce  some  of  the 
elementary  forms  that  enter  largely  into  all  classes  of  design. 
The  exercises  on  this  plate  are  to  be  drawn  by  the  student 
to  train  his  eye  and  hand  to  work  together,  and  thereby 
become  sufficiently  practiced  to  execute  the  problems  that 
follow.  The  drawing  of  a  single  line  is  of  as  much  impor- 
tance as  the  execution  of  an  entire  design,  and  the  student 
must  practice  constantly  and  patiently,  until  he  masters  each 
simple  problem,  before  he  attempts  the  next.  •  If  each  lesson 
is  thoroughly  learned,  the  next  one  will  invariably  prove 
easier. 

In  Fig.  1  of  the  plate  is  shown  the  method  of  drawing  per- 
pendicular straight  lines.  The  pencil  should  be  held  lightly 
between  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  with  its  upper  end  rest- 
ing against  the  finger  between  the  second  and  the  third 
joint,  while  the  end  of  the  middle  finger  rests  on  top  of  the 
pencil  alongside  of  the  forefinger,  and  not  underneath  the 
pencil,  as  is  sometimes  erroneously  done 
in  writing. 

The  drawing  board  should  be  squarely 
in  front  of  the  student,  and  his  elbow 
should  rest  near  the  bottom  of  the  board, 
somewhat  to  the  right  of  the  drawing  on 
which  he  is  at  work.  A  short  straight 
line  is  then  drawn,  as  from  a  to  b  in 
Fig.  3,  and  the  arm  shifted  a  little  lower 
down  on  the  board,  and  another  line, 
as  be,  drawn,  care  being  taken  that  there 
is  a  space  of  at  least  ^.j  inch  between  the  end  of  the 
line  a  b  and  the  beginning  of  the  line  b  c.  A  third  section  of 
the  line  is  then  drawn  from  c  downwards,  and  so  on, .until 
the  line  is  of  the  desired  length.  Having  practiced  this  sev- 
eral times,  the  student  should  gradually  decrease  the  spaces 
between  tin-  sections  of  the  line  until  it  appears  as  a  straight 


Fir,.  3. 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


11 


unbroken  line,  as  shown  at  d c.  It  is  necessary  to  be  still 
more  careful  in  doing-  this,  lest  the  lines  overlap  one  another 
or  curl  out  at  the  ends.  The  former  error  causes  the  fin- 
ished line  to  appear  somewhat  as  at  (a)  in  Fig.  4,  while  the 
line  composed  of  strokes  whose  extremities  are  curled  would 
appear  ragged,  as  at  (b).  The  strokes  with  which  these  lines 
are  made  are  not  short,  quick  dashes  of  the  pencil  or  pen,  but 
slow,  even  marks,  each  of  which  is  started  carefully,  drawn 
slowly,  and  finished  abruptly,  so  as  to  show  a  clean,  even 
stroke,  the  same  weight  and  color  through- 
out, and  clean  cut  from  end  to  end.  The 
second  stroke  must  never  lap  over  the  first, 
and  it  is  better  to  let  a  hairbreadth  space 
remain  between  the  ends  of  the  lines  than  to 
have  the  least  suggestion  of  a  line  like  (a). 
Practice  this  simple  line  exercise  repeatedly 
as  in  it  lies  the  whole  key  to  successful  free- 
hand drawing.  When  the  student  has  acquired 
proficiency  in  this  exercise,  he  may  commence 
work  on  his  drawing  plate.  Draw  the  border 
line  enclosing  a  space  13  in.  X  17  in.,  and  then 
draw  three  light  horizontal  pencil  lines  A  B 
5  inches,  CD  7  inches,  and  E  F  9|  inches  above 
the  lower  border  line.  This  will  divide  the.  (  a)  (*>) 
drawing  plate  into  four  horizontal  bands. 
Divide  the  length  of  one  of  these  bands  into  five  equal  parts, 
and  through  the  points  of  division  draw  light  vertical  lines, 
thus  converting  the  surface  of  the  drawing  plate  into  twenty 
rectangles.  This  may  all  be  done  with  the  T  square  and 
triangle ;  but,  from  this  point  on,  the  student  must  abandon 
the  use  of  instruments  for  this  plate,  and  execute  the  prob- 
lems freehand.  Each  figure,  except  Figs.  17,  18,  10,  and  20, 
must  be  drawn  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  center,  between 
the  vertical  lines  of  its  respective  rectangle,  and  each  figure, 
except  Figs.  11  to  15,  must  rest  on  the  lower  horizontal  line 
of  its  rectangle.  Now  draw  the  first  figure  of  the  drawing 
plate.  This  consists  of  seven  perpendicular  lines,  each  of 
which  is  2  inches  long  and  spaced  as  shown,  either  \  inch  or 


!•>.  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §2 

\  inch  from  its  neighbor.  Only  one  of  them  need  be  an 
absolutely  solid  line,  the  others  being  composed  of  dashes 
about  5  inch  in  length. 

The  drawing  of  horizontal  lines  should  now  be  practiced 
in  a  similar  manner,  except  that  the  elbow  should  be  drawn 
nearer  the  body.  When  the  strokes  forming  the  horizontal 
lines  are  drawn,  the  whole  arm  should  be  moved  toward  the 
right,  in  order  to  prevent  the  lines  from  becoming  arched, 
as  would  be  the  case  if  the  elbow  remained  fixed  and  the 
hand  were  moved  only  so  far  as  the  swing  of  the  arm  would 
permit.  The  strokes  forming  the  horizontal  lines  may  be 
somewhat  longer  than  those  composing  the  vertical  lines, 
but  the  method  of  forming  one  straight  line,  by  the  careful 
union  of  several  smaller  ones,  remains  precisely  the  same 
for  both  cases. 

In  drawing  the  horizontal  lines,  see  that  perfect  parallel- 
ism is  maintained;  the  spacing  between  the  lines,  however, 
may  be  gradually  increased  or  decreased  in  order  to  better 
train  the  eye  as  well  as  control  the  hand.  In  drawing  Fig.  2 
of  the  drawing  plate  make  the  upper  and  lower  three  lines 
\  inch  apart,  and  -?,-  inch  from  the  middle  line,  all  the  lines 
being  2  inches  long. 

Figs.  3  and  4  show  two  sets  of  parallel  oblique  lines,  the 
former  being  drawn  from  right  to  left,  and  generally  called 
right-oblique  lines,  and  the  latter  drawn  from  left  to  right, 
and  usually  designated  as  Icft-obhquc  lines.  Fig.  3  is  much 
the  easier  to  draw,  as  the  slope  of  the  lines  corresponds 
in  direction  to  the  inclination  of  the  letters  in  ordinary 
handwriting,  and  the  hand  is  more  accustomed  to  the  angle. 
After  practicing  the  right-oblique  lines  until  the  student 
feels  assured  he  can  do  as  well  with  them  as  with  the  two 
previous  sets,  he  should  draw  a  series  in  the  direction  shown 
in  Fig.  4.  To  do  this  it  will  be  necessary  for  him  to  change 
the  position  of  his  arm,  so  as  to  bring  the  elbow  toward  the 
right  end  of  the  board  and  the  hand  above,  and  to  the  right 
of  the  lines  to  be  drawn.  The  lines  in  Figs.  3  and  4  should 
incline  at  an  angle  of  4/1°,  and  should  be  arranged  in  pairs, 
as  shown,  with  \  inch  between  the  individual  lines  of  each 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


13 


pair,  and  a  distance  of  2  inches  between  the  -extreme  outside 
lines  of  each  figure,  the  lines  each  being  1 1  inches  long. 

Figs.  5  and  G  involve  no  new  principle  in  drawing,  and  are 
jimply  a  combination  of  the  previous  problems.  Observe, 
however,  that  though  these  two  figures  contain  exactly  the 
same  number  of  lines  and  nearly  the  same  lengths  of  lines, 
they  are,  in  appearance,  entirely  different.  This  difference 
of  appearance  is  due  to  the  composition  of  the  figures,  and 
many  changes  of  arrangement  can  be  effected  without  alter- 
ing the  number  or  size  of  the  lines.  In  line  composition  the 
designer  has  but  two  elements  to  consider — the  lines  and  the 
spaces.  Subsequently  he  may  darken  some  of  the  spaces, 


FIG.  s. 

thereby  entering  into  surface  composition,  wherein  he  has 
at  least  two  more  elements  to  consider — liglit  and  shade. 
Fig.  5  of  the  text  shows  six  different  problems  in  com- 
position, all  based  on  the  line  elements  as  arranged  in 
Fig.  5  of  the  drawing  plate,  but  treated  differently  as  to 
light  and  shade,  thus  illustrating  the  fact  that  even  with 
a  few  elements  of  composition  a  great  variety  of  design 
may  be  produced.  The  blackening,  or  shading,  of  certain 
parts  of  a  line  composition,  in  this  manner,  is  technically 
termed  spotting,  and  when  a  plain  line  drawing  is  thus 
treated  it  is  said  to  be  spotted. 

To  draw  Fig.  5,  first  erect  a  perpendicular  line  in  the  center 
of  the  last  rectangle,  and  from  its  intersection  with  the  line 
E  Fy  draw  right  and  left  oblique  lines  each  at  an  angle  of 


14  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §2 

45°,  and  I  :|  inches  in  length.  Let  these  two  lines  be  the 
lower  sides  of  a  square  standing'  on  its  corner.  Having 
completed  the  square,  draw  -\  inch  within  each  of  its  sides, 
a  line  parallel  to  that  side,  and  through  the  center  of  the 
square  draw  parallel  lines  ]-  inch  apart,  as  shown.  The 
small  inscribed  square  may  then  be  drawn,  each  side  of 
which  is  I  inch. 

The  square  enclosing  Fig.  G  is  2  inches  on  each  side, 
and  rests  on  the  line  CD  directly  below  Fig.  1.  The  lines 
of  its  composition  are  spaced  \  inch,  ^  inch,  ^  inch,  1  inch, 
1|  inches,  and  l\  inches  from  the  left  side  and  top,  respect- 
ively. The  same  number  of  lines  and  nearly  the  same 
lengths  of  lines  are  used  in  both  Fig.  5  and  Fig.  6,  but,  as  said 
before,  the  student  can  readily  see  the  variation  of  effect  that 
may  be  obtained  by  the  simple  arrangement  of  a  few  lines. 
The  exact  sizes  and  dimensions  of  the  several  interior 
squares  are  not  matters  of  importance  to  us  now,  and  the 
student's  drawing-  of  this  figure  will  be  judged  by  the  care 
of  his  execution  rather  than  by  the  accuracy  of  his  eye 
measurement.  The  angles  of  the  square  must  be  90°,  and 
not  more  nor  less,  and  opposite  sides  must  be  perfectly 
parallel,  while  adjacent  sides  must 
be  perpendicular  to  each  other.  The 
straightncss  of  the  lines  or  their 
exact  length  as  to  this  description 
will  not  be  considered.  For  instance, 
a  drawing-  like  Fig.  6  of  the  text 
would  be  considered  as  satisfactory 
at  this  stage  of  the  work,  for,  though 
the  lines  are  somewhat  irregular, 
their  directions  are  correct  and  they 

intersect  at  right  angles;  and  though  the  inner  rectangles 
arc  larger  than  the  corner  ones,  they  are  perfect  squares  and 
are  all  the  same  size  one  as  another.  They  thus  preserve 
harmony  in  the  figure  and  avoid  the  appearance  of  irregu- 
larity and  carelessness  shown  in  Fig.  7,  wherein  the  lines 
themselves  arc  more  nearly  perfect  but  their  direction 
and  parallelism  extremely  faulty.  Draw  Fig.  5  several 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  15 

times  on   a  separate   piece   of   paper   before   executing   it 
on  the  drawing  sheet. 

These  simple  line  exercises  are  of  the  utmost  importance 
to  the  student,  as  on  them  will  depend  much  of  his  future 
freehand  work.  He  should  practice  each  set  repeatedly,  on 
a  sheet  of  ordinary  brown  Manila  paper,  until  he  feels  confi- 
dence in  his  ability  to  produce,  at  will,  perpendicular,  hori- 
zontal, or  oblique  lines,  and  then,  but  not  till  then,  should 
he  attempt  to  draw  them  on  the  sheet  that  he  willsend  to 
the  Schools  for  correction.  Each  of  these  exercises  should 
be  drawn  as  carefully  and  as  accurately 
as  though  it  were  a  part  of  a  compli- 
cated design.  Haste  will  only  produce 
slovenliness  and  impede  the  progress 
of  the  student  to  the  end  he  seeks  to 
attain,  namely,  that  of  becoming  a 
good  draftsman.  Neatness,  accuracy, 
and  rapidity  are  the  three  qualifica- 
tions of  a  good  draftsman,  in  the 
order  of  their  importance,  and  the 
last  is  of  no  value  unless  accompanied  by  the  other  two, 
while  the  second  is  impossible  without  the  first. 

Fig.  7  is  an  equilateral  triangle,  the  base  of  which  is 
2£  inches  long.  The  inclination  of  the  sides  is  not  so 
easy  to  judge  by  the  eye  as  were  the  45°  lines  in  Figs.  3,  4, 
and  5,  but  if  the  student  will  bear  in  mind  that  the  apex 
must  be  exactly  over  the  center  of  the  base,  he  will  expe- 
rience little  trouble. 

After  the  triangle  is  drawn,  bisect  the  sides  and  draw  the 
enclosed  triangle  as  shown. 

The  triangle  is  a  very  important  figure  to  the  designer  of 
certain  classes  of  goods,  such  as  wall  papers,  carpets,  etc. ,  as 
the  facility  with  which  it  can  be  repeated,  and  still  retain  its 
original  form,  makes  it  extremely  valuable  as  the  guiding 
principle  of  several  classes  of  patterns. 

Figs.  8,  0,  and  10  are  examples  of  borders  taken  from 
Greek  pottery,  and  are  composed  entirely  of  straight  lines, 
that  when  spotted,  as  explained  in  connection  with  Figs.  5 


10  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

and  6,  can  be  made  very  interesting  and  complicated.  For 
instance,  on  looking  at  Fig.  8  of  the  text  we  observe  that  the 
pattern  consists  of  two  outline  forms  identical  in  every 
respect,  and  so  shaped  that  one  fits  exactly  into  the  other, 
that  the  lines  a  are  all  of  the  same  length  and  at  right  angles 

to  each  other,  and  the  lines  b  are 
all  twice  the  length  of  lines  a. 

For  Figs.  8,  9,  and  10,  the 
student  may  draw  with  his 
T  square  three  horizontal  lines  at 
x,  y,  and  s,  about  1  inch  apart, 
and  extending  through  the  three 
right-hand  divisions  of  the  sheet. 
Fig.  8  is  then  executed  by  draw- 
ing a  vertical  line  x  z  across  the  three  lines  thus  ruled ;  and 
at  a  distance  to  the  right  of  this  vertical,  equal  to  the  space 
between  the  horizontals,  another  vertical  line  u  t  is  drawn 
between  the  two  lower  horizontals.  A  third  vertical  line 
U'V  is  then  drawn  the  same  distance  to  the  right  of  the 
second  one.  and  extending  between  the  upper  two  lines. 
The  horizonal  lines  xw  and  it  v  are  then  drawn,  connecting 
the  ends  of  x  z  and  wv,  and  ivv  and  11  /,  as  shown,  and  with 
t  s  equal  to  xw  the  outline  of  one  of  the  sections  of  the  fret 
is  complete.  The  vertical  line  a',  drawn  to  the  right  of  w  v, 
will  then  start  a  second  section  of  the  fret,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  complete  the  inverted  outline  that  is  to  follow  the 
contour  of  the  first  section.  A  peculiarity  of  all  the  best 
Greek  frets  is  that  the  outline  of  the  fret  and  the  outline  of 
the  background  are  identical,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8.  Having 
drawn  the  meandering  outline  of  the  fret,  draw  the  horizon- 
tal border  lines  above  and  below,  so  as  to  make  the  whole 
design  about  •>  inches  wide,  and  erase  the  pencil  lines  ,r,  y, 
and  z-  where  they  have  not  been  inked  in. 

Fig.  !)  is  somewhat  similar  to  Fig.  8,  but  is  capable  of  more 
variations  in  spotting,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9  of  the  text.  At  (a) 
we  have  the  ground  and  the  pattern  of  the  fret  spotted  in  con- 
trasting colors,  while  the  effect  at  (V)  is  produced  simply  by 
increasing  the  weight  of  the  constructive  lines.  Both  systems 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


1? 


produce  frets  wherein  the  ground  and  pattern  are  similar  in 
outline.  At  (b]  the  line  of  separation  between  the  dark  and 
light  portions  of  the  design  is  thickened  into  a  white  band 
and  the  other  elements  are  left  in  black.  To  design  Fig.  9, 
a  number  of  perpendicular  lines  are  drawn  across  the  center 
line  y  equal  in  length  and  spacing  to  the  distance  between 

the  three  horizontal  guide  lines    

x,  y,  and  .y.  The  tops  r  and  bot- 
toms q  of  each  alternate  pair  of 
the  verticals  are  then  connected 
with  a  horizontal  line  equal  to  the 
verticals.  This  forms  the  mean- 
dering outline  of  the  figure. 
Above  and  below  this  meander- 
ing outline,  at  a  distance  equal 
to  half  the  space  between  the 
lines,  two  horizontal  lines  are 
drawn,  from  which  perpendicu- 
lars extend  into  the  open  parts 
of  the  meander  as  far  as  the 
middle  horizontal  guide  line  y. 
The  border  lines  above  and  below 
are  then  drawn  to  make  the  entire 
width  about  2  inches. 

Fig.  10  is  more  complicated. 
It  is  a  combination  of  Figs.  8 
and  9,  and,  when  analyzed,  shows 
two  entirely  separate  and  distinct 
but  identical  outlines  so  inter- 
woven as  to  form  one  harmonious 
design.  This  design  may  be  made 
very  complicated  by  spotting,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  10  of  the  text.  -  To  design  Fig.  1<>  of  the 
drawing  plate,  the  simplest  method  is  to  draw  across  the 
central  guide  line  a  short  vertical  line  equal  in  length  to 
the  verticals  in  Fig.  9;  then,  through  the  center  of  this 
vertical,  draw  a  horizontal  line  of  the  same  length,  thus 
forming  a  simple  cross,  a  b,  c d,  Fig.  It  (<?).  Now,  from 


7*7 


(C) 

Fio.  9. 


18 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


the    upper   ami    lower    ends    of    the    verticals,    draw    lines 

of   equal    length    to    the    left   and   right,   respectively,   and 

from    the    left   and    right   of    the 

horizontal  line  draw  at  right 
angles  a  line  extending  below  and 
one  above  the  center  guide  line 
and  equal  in  length  to  the  other 
lines  drawn;  this  will  produce  a 
figure  similar  to  Fig.  11  (a).  Now 
draw  a  third  set  of  lines  at  right 
angles  to  this  second  set  and  par- 
allel to  the  first  set,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  11  (b).  These  lines,  it  will 
be  observed,  are  the  -same  distance 
apart,  and  are  exactly  parallel. 
The  horizontal  lines  at  the  top 
and  bottom  may  now  be  extended 
to  left  and  right,  respectively,  a 
distance  equal  to  the  space  between 
parallel  lines  of  the  meander;  this 
will  complete  one  section,  and  the 
same  operation  may  be  repeated, 
making  the  intersections  of  the 

short  cross-lines  take  place  at  a  point  five  times  the  space 

between  the  horizontal  lines  to  the  right. 

Fig.   11   is  a  simple  octagon,  but  to  draw  it  accurately 

requires  more  care  and  accuracy  of  eye 

measurement  than  any  of  the  previous 

figures.     Begin  it  by  drawing  a  perpen- 
dicular   line    <7  />,    2    inches   in    length, 

and  extending  1  inch  each  side  of  A  B. 

Carefully  lay  off  the  length  of  c  c,  1  inch 

each  side   of  <•?/;;    cfandg/t  are  now 

drawn  at  an  angle  of  -45°  with  a  b,  and 

intersecting  it  at  its  center  o.      From  o, 

carefully  lay  off  1  inch  on  each  of  the 

oblique  lines,  as  its  length  each  side  of  the  center.      If  this 

work  is  accurately  done,  the  Hues  connecting  a  c,  c  c,  c  h,  etc. 


a 

(a) 


FIG.  11. 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


10 


will  describe  a  perfect  octagon.  Study  it  carefully,  and  if 
any  signs  of  unevcnness  are  observed,  alter  the  outline  and. 
correct  the  point. 

Fig.  12  is  a  circle,  and  it  is  drawn  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  as  the  previous  figure,  except  the  points  a  e,  e  d,  etc. 
are  connected  with  curved  lines  instead  of  straight  ones.  In 
drawing  the  circumference  of  the  circle,  after  the  guide  lines 
have  been  carefully  laid  out,  a  short  straight  line  may  be 
drawn  across  the  ends  of  each 
of  the  guide  lines,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  12  of  the  text  at  a;  then 
between  each  pair  of  these 
short  lines,  another  short  line 
may  be  drawn,  producing  a 
IG-sided  polygon;  the  whole 
circumference  may  then  be 
evened  up  as  at  b  before  it  is 
inked  in.  Considerable  prac- 
tice is  necessary  to  enable  the 
student  to  draw  a  perfect  circle, 
but  he  will  be  surprised  and  delighted  to  learn  how  simple 
a  problem  this  is  after  careful  and  repeated  practice. 

Figs.  13,  14,  and  15  are  ellipses  whose  major  and  minor 
axes  intersect  on  the  line  A  B.  The  three  large  ellipses  in 
thjese  figures  are  each  3^  inches  long  and  2  inches  wide, 
and  the  fourth  one  intersecting  the  large  one  in  Fig.  15  is 
3|  inches  long  and  f  inch  wide. 

The  method  of  drawing  an  ellipse  geometrically  was 
explained  in  Geometrical  Drawing,  so  the  student  should 
be,  by  this  time,  fairly  familiar  with  the  characteristics 
of  the  curve.  First  draw  the  two  axes,  then  draw  short 
straight  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  ends  of  the  axes, 
and  roughly  sketch  in  the  curve,  in  pencil,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  13  of  the  text.  Care  must  be  exercised,  however, 
to  keep  the  proper  curvature  and  avoid  such  appearing 
sketches  as  shown  in  Fig.  14.  The  student  himself  can 
see  that  these  are  not  ellipses,  and  must  avoid  return- 
ing his  drawing  plate  with  any  such  monstrosities.  This 


FIG.  12. 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


is  a  difficult   figure    to  draw,   but   with   proper  care   and 
practice  it  can  soon  be  satisfactorily  rendered.     The  con- 


FlG.  13. 


FIG.  14. 


11    to    15    should    be    drawn   and 


struction   lines   of   Figs. 
inked  freehand. 

Fig.  10  is  a  volute  more  commonly  known  as  a  spiral,  and 
its  outline  in  varied  forms  pervades  all  styles  of  ornament. 
It  is,  therefore,  worthy  of  considerable  attention.  The 
example  here  given  is  piirely  Greek  in  its  proportions,  and 
the  ratio  of  its  height  to  its  width  is  governed  by  definite 
geometrical  rules  for  each  convolution  or  turn. 

In  drawing  the  Grecian  volute,  the  construction  lines  ab, 
b  c,  and  c  d  should  be  laid  out  in  the  proportion  of  6^  :  5£  :  4£. 
That  is,  if  ab  is  G|-  inches  long,  then  be  and  cd  must  be 
5}  inches  and  4|  inches,  respectively.  And  the  construction 
lines  of  the  inner  convolution  must  have  this  same  propor- 
tion; that  is,  cf\fg  :  gh  =  G-i  :  o^-  :  41. 

To  draw  Fig.  1,  lay  off  ab  —  *\  inches,  be  =  2f  inches, 
and  c  d  —  2\-  inches;  cf  is  always  1  a  b,  and  de  is  1  (cd-{-  ef)  ; 


therefore,  ef  is  1  jj-  inches,  and  d  c  is 


=  lif  inches; 


d  c  is,  therefore,  laid  off  Ij-f  inches  and  cf  If  inches;  fg  will 
be  in  proportion  to  *'/as  G|  :  5|,  or  If  inches,  and  gh  will  be 
to/^as  5£  :  4-J-,  or  \\  inches.  In  the  same  manner  hk  is 
found  to  be  \\  inch,  kl  is  if  inch,  Im  is  1^-  inch,  and  mn  is 
f",;  inch.  Within  these  construction  lines  (u'hich  must  be 
ratcly  laid  off  with  the  scale,  and  drawn  with  the 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  21 

T  square  and  triangle}  the  volute  is  then  drawn  freehand, 
care  being"  exercised  that  the  curyes  are  just  tangent  to 
the  straight  lines  as  they  pass.  After  inking  this  volute 
curve,  the  student  should  dot  in  the  construction  lines  with 
a  ruling  pen. 

Fig.  17  is  an  oval  a.n&  is  composed  of  a  semicircle  and  a 
semiellipse  whose  major  axis  is  located  4£  inches  from  the 
left  border  line.  Draw  freehand  the  line  ab  2  inches  in 
length  and  2|  inches  above  the  lower  border.  Above  this 
line  construct  a  semicircle  in  the  same  manner  as  was  done 
in  Fig.  12,  using  a  b  as  its  horizontal  diameter,  and  below 
construct  a  semiellipse  after  the  manner  practiced  in  Figs. 
13,  14,  and  15,  with  ab  as  the  minor  axis  which  shall  extend 
2  inches  below  a  b.  The  correct  outlining  of  these  elliptical 
curves  is  of  vast  importance  in  the  exercises  that  follow,  and 
the  student  is  urged  to  practice  them  frequently. 

Fig.  18,  though  simple  in  appearance,  is  by  no  means  easy 
to  draw.  It  represents  the  radiation  of  lines  from  a  point, 
a  characteristic  of  the  growth  of  some  plants,  that  is  fre- 
quently taken  advantage  of  in  examples  of  ornamental 
design.  To  draw  Fig.  18,  first  lay  off  the  lines  ab  and  c d 
as  the  major  and  minor  axes  of  an  ellipse  (the  former  being 
7|  inches  from  the  left  border  line)  identical  with  Fig.  14; 
then  carefully  outline  this  ellipse  in  pencil,  and  within  it 
draw  the  radiating  lines  curved,  as  shown.  Note  that  the 
radiating  lines  intersect  the  circumference  of  the  ellipse 
nearer  together  at  the  top  than  at  the  sides,  the  distance  a  e 
being  about  \  inch,  while  cf  and  fd  are  about  -|  inch  and 
£  inch,  respectively.  After  inking  the  figure,  the  construction 
line  c  d  may  be  erased,  and  the  ellipse  dotted  in  with  the 
ruling  pen  and  irregular  curve. 

Fig.  19  is  drawn  within  an  ellipse  also,  but  the  major 
axis  ab  is  inclined  at  an  angle  of  00°  and  intersects  the 
minor  axis  at  a  point  2  inches  above  the  lower  border 
line  and  6£  inches  from  the  right  border  line.  The 
curved  lines  radiate  evenly  from  b  and  intersect  the  cir- 
cumference in  three  points  equally  spaced  between  a  and  c. 
In  inking  this  figure,  the  construction  lines  may  be  erased 


22 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


2 


and  the  elliptical  curve  dotted  in  with  ruling  pen  from 
c  to  a  only. 

Fig.  20  is  another  example  of  radiation,  but  from  a  line  in 
this  case  instead  of  a  point.  Draw  a  b  3  inches  long  and 
4  inches  to  the  left  of  the  right-hand  border  line,  and  mark 
off  thereon  the  points  from  which  the  curved  lines  radiate. 
Note  that  these  points  are  not  regularly  spaced  along  a  b, 
but  that  their  distance  apart  increases  toward  the  top.  From 
/;  to  c  is  but  J-  inch,  while  the  distances  c  d  and  de  are  f  inch 
and  f  inch,  respectively.  The  radials  starting  from  c  extend 
\  inch  to  the  right  and  left  of  ab,  and  upward  to  the  level 
of  d.  The  radials  from  d  extend  \  inch  to  the  right  and  left 
of  a  ^,and  those  from  c  only  \  inch.  Their  length  and  upward 
extent  the  student  must  judge  by  the  eye,  as  also  the  two 
lower  radials,  which  extend  about  f  inch  each  side  of  a  b. 

These  radiating  figures  must  be  studied  carefully;  there 
is  really  very  much  more  in  them  than  would  at  first  appear, 
and  the  principles  of  their  composition  and  construction  per- 
vade all  natural  ornament. 

The  radiation  of  the  lines  in  Figs.  18  and  19  is  character- 
istic of  the  growth  of  some  plants,  such  as  the  cattail,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  15,  and  the  veining'  of  certain  leaves  as  in 
Fig.  16  of  the  text.  The  radiation  from 
a  line,  as  shown  in  Fig.  20  of  the  drawing 
plate,  is  characteristic  of  the  growth  of 


FIG.  16. 


;md  shrubs,  and  illustrates  the  great  laws  of  all 
foliated  ornament.     These  laws  are  based  on  the  observation 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  *:) 

of  the  arrangement  and  natural  growth  of  plants,  and  are  as 
follows  : 

1.     All  lines  should  radiate  from  a  parent  stem. 

•I.  All  branching  lines  should  be  tangent  to  the  line  from 
which  they  branch,  as  in  Fig.  20,  where  the  branching  lines 
do  not  start  out  of  ab  abruptly,  but  are  tangent  to  it  at 
r ,  d,  etc. 

3.  There  should  be  a  proportionate  distribution  of  areas. 
This  is  not  so  easy  to  understand  as  the  previous  rules,  but 
may  be  illustrated  by  a  tree,  wherein  the  areas  are  propor- 
tioned according  to  their  distribution  and  distance  from  the 
parent  stem.  The  trunk  is  the  parent  stem,  and  has  the 
greatest  area,  but  decreases  toward  the  top.  The  branches 
nearest  the  ground  are  the  largest  and  closest  together,  and 
diminish  in  size  toward  their  ends.  All  branches  and  twigs 
are  less  in  area  than  the  branch  from  which  they  spring.  In 
Fig.  20  observe  that,  though  the  parent  stem  and  branches 
are  single  lines  of  equal  thickness  and  apparent  area,  the 
arrangement  is  such  as  to  give  the  impression  of  distribu- 
tion. The  area  embraced  by  the  lower  branches  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  ones  above,  and  the  outline  of  the  entire 
figure  diminishes  toward  the  top,  giving  an  impression  of 
lightness  and  solidity. 

Always  observe  these  rules  in  drawing  any  figure,  and  try 
to  make  the  representation  of  an  object  appear  lighter  toward 
the  top.  Note  that  in  all  works  of  architecture,  high  struc- 
tures, such  as  steeples  and  towers,  are  either  made  smaller 
toward  the  top,  or  are  pierced  above  with  large  windows  in 
order  to  give  the  appearance  of  lightness  at  the  top  and 
solidity  at  the  bottom.  Note  that  columns,  pilasters,  and 
piers  are  nearly  always  smaller  at  the  top  than  at  the  bot- 
tom, thus  expressing  their  immovability;  while  the  legs  of 
tables  and  other  unfixed  objects  are  smaller  at  the  bottom 
than  at  the  top,  expressive  of  their  movability. 

In  drawing  Fig.  21,  the  student  has  simply  to  combine  the 
details  of  a  few  of  the  previous  problems.  This  figure  is  a 
vase  3  inches  in  height,  and  4-  inch  and  1£  inches  in  diameter 
at  a  and  d,  respectively.  The  student  will  draw  the  center 


04  F  R  H  I-:  1 1 A  N  D  I)  R  AW  ING.  §  2 

line  of  the  vase  directly  under  the  center  of  Fig.  15,  and  lay 
out  the  outline  entirely  freehand  and  by  eye  measurement. 
Knowing  the  dimensions  a  and  b,  the  observing  student  will 
discover  that  c  is  a  little  more  than  a,  and  that  d  is  a  little 
less.  Other  dimensions  can  be  judged  by  comparison  in  the 
same  manner  and  the  figure  completed  without  further 
directions.  After  inking  in  Fig.  21  the  construction  line 
through  its  center  may  be  erased. 

Having  completed  all  the  figures  in  pencil,  the  student 
will  proceed  to  ink  them  in  freehand,  except  where  the  pre- 
vious instructions  directed  him  to  do  otherwise.  He  may 
then  draw  the  title  {\  inch  high  at  the  top  of  the  plate,  free- 
hand, and  ink  the  border  line  with  his  ruling  pen.  In  inking 
a  drawing  freehand,  the  pen  is  held  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  as  the  pencil,  and  the  lines  are  drawn  carefully  in 
short,  even  strokes,  to  preserve  uniformity.  Use  a  good, 
coarse  pen,  and  do  not  be  afraid  to  let  the  lines  be  rather 
heavy  at  first,  as  a  thin  line  is  more  difficult  to  draw  evenly 
than  a  heavy  one.  The  name,  class  letter  and  number, 
together  with  the  date,  may  then  be  inserted  below  the  line, 
as  in  previous  cases. 

NOTE.  —  Do  not  ink  in  your  drawing  of  this  plate,  or  return  it  to  us 
for  correction  until  after  your  first  plate  is  returned  to  you  with  its  cor- 
rections and  criticisms.  Then  note  carefully  the  errors  pointed  out 
and  see  that  similar  ones  have  not  been  made  on  your  Drawing  Plate, 
title,  Surfaces  and  Solids. 

After  we  have  called  the  student's  attention  to  the  errors  on  his 
first  plate,  we  expect  him  to  profit  by  the  criticism  and  avoid  a  repeti- 
tion of  them  on  his  second  plate ;  as  a  repetition  of  the  error  will  count 
against  him  more  than  when  it  was  first  made. 

This  method  of  procedure  will  be  necessary  throughout  the  entire 
course,  as  there  are  but  two  plates  of  each  kind  of  work,  and  the  stu- 
dent needs  the  criticism  of  the  first  in  order  to  properly  execute  the 
second. 


DKAWIXO  PLATE,  TITTLE:   SURFACES  A!NT>  SOLIDS. 

1  ().  The  figures  on  this  plate  consist  of  a  series  of  objects, 
the  drawing  of  which  will  involve  all  the  principles  learned 
in  the  execution  of  the  previous  plate.  The  first  four  figures 
are  designs  of  surface  ornament  or  details  wherein  the  con- 
sideration of  depth  or  thickness  forms  no  part.  The  last 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  25 

five  figures  are  sketches  in  perspective  of  familiar  objects 
drawn  so  as  to  accustom  the  student  to  the  representation  of 
objects  where  the  dimension  of  thickness  or  depth  must  be 
expressed.  In  drawing  this  plate,  lay  out  the  border  line  as 
before  and  divide  the  plate  lengthwise  by  a  horizontal  pen- 
cil line  through  the  middle,  and  above  this  line  divide  the 
space  as  follows :  Draw  four  vertical  lines,  1^  inches,  4  inches, 
?|  inches,  and  llf  inches  to  the  right  of  the  left  border  line. 
The  first  three  of  these  will  be  the  center  lines  of  Figs.  1,  2, 
and  3,  and  the  fourth  will  be  the  line  of  the  wall  a  b, 

Fig.  1  is  a  baluster  and  its  moldings,  according  to  the 
architectural  proportions  set  forth  for  such  details.  The 
student  will  first  draw  a  vertical  line  xy,  ^  inch  to  the  right 
of  the  border,  to  serve  as  a  measuring  line.  This  line  will 
be  divided  into  68  equal  parts,  as  shown,  each  part  being 
y1^  inch,  thus  making  the.height  of  the  baluster  4^  inches.  All 
the  measurements  for  the  proportioning  of  the  baluster  will 
be  given  in  parts,  each  part  being,  as  above  stated,  y1^  inch. 
The  width  of  the  abacus  a  is  22  parts,  the  thickest  part  of 
the  vase  at  b  is  25  parts,  and  the  diameter  of  the  neck  at  c  is 
10  parts.  The  vertical  measurements  can  be  determined  by 
counting  the  number  of  parts  between  each  division,  and 
when  all  the  horizontal  lines  are  located  the  contour  may  be 
carefully  sketched  in.  The  vertical  measuring  line  may 
then  be  erased  before  the  figure  is  inked  in.  Although  these 
proportions  are  subject  to  slight  relative  alterations  under 
different  circumstances,  they  are  practically  uniform  in  nearly 
all  cases  where  the  oiitlines  of  a  stone  baluster  are  required. 

Fig.  2  is  a  panel  of  an  iron  railing  the  design  of  which  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  scrolls  and  radiating  ornament,  based  on 
the  outline  of  the  baluster  just  drawn,  but  changed  to  suit 
the  circumstances  required  by  working  in  strap  iron,  in  con- 
trast to  the  requirements  of  stone.  The  student's  attention 
is  called  particularly  to  the  fact  that  there  is  propriety  in  the 
ironwork  design  in  making  its  outline  resemble  the  outline 
of  the  solid  baluster,  inasmuch  as  it  is  to  serve  a  similar  pur- 
pose in  a  balustrade  of  different  material. 

The  center  line  and  enclosing  rectangle  of  Fig.  2  may  be 


FRKKIIAXI)  DRAWING. 


drawn  precisely  the  same  as  in  Fig.  1,  exeept  that  the  rect- 
angle itself  and  the  center  line  will  be  inked  in  solid,  as  it  is 
intended  to  form  a  part  of  the  ironwork.  The  center  line  is 
located  4  inches  to  the  right  of  the  border  line,  and  the  con- 
tour of  the  inside  ironwork  follows  as  closely  as  possible  the 
contour  of  the  stone  baluster. 

In  Fig.  3  we  have  a  design  for  another  device  in  ironwork, 
but  one  of  an  entirely  different  character.  Fig.  3  is  a  car- 
touch  made  of  sheet  iron,  the  design  of  which  is  based  on  the 
ellipse.  Cartoncli  is  the  term  applied  to  circular  or  shield- 
shaped  devices,  whose  surface  is  represented  in  relief,  and  the 

border  of  which  is 
usually  more  or  less 
ornate  with  scrolls  or 
strap  work.  In  order 
that  the  student  may 
understand  the  char- 
acter of  Fig.  3,  he 
should  give  his  atten- 
tion to  Fig.  17  of  the 
text,  which  is  a  devel- 
oped outline  of  the 
piece  of  sheet  iron 
or  other  metal  from 
which  the  cartouch 
would  be  made.  The 
wings  a  are  rolled 
backwards  and  the  wings  b  rolled  forwards,  and  produce  the 
effect  expressed  in  Fig.  3  of  the  drawing  plate.  The  stu- 
dent should  lay  out  the  figure  first,  as  shown  in  the  text, 
and  cut  it  out  of  heavy  paper  or  thin  metal,  and  then  by 
rolling  the  wings  around  his  pencil  in  the  direction  indi- 
cated, he  can  form  a  model  of  the  device,  which,  set  up 
before  him,  will  greatly  assist  him  in  the  representation  on 
his  plate.  The  length  of  the  ellipse  from  c  to  d  is  3^  inches, 
while  its  breadth  from  c  to/ is  24  inches.  The  interior  ellipse 
is  2J- in.  xHin.,  the  circumference  of  which  is  practically 
parallel  with  the  outside.  After  the  wings  have  been  rolled 


FIG.  17 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  27 

over,  .they  project  uniformly  from  the  top  and  sides  of  the 
cartouch,  so  as  to  come  within  the  outline  of  another  ellipse 
shown  dotted  at  g  h.  There  is  nothing  difficult  in  the  draw- 
ing of  this  figure,  the  ellipses  being  contoured  in  the  same 
manner  as  on  the  previous  plate,  and  the  curled  wings  being 
represented  by  a  simple  combination  of  scrolls  and  straight 
lines.  When  the  figure  is  completed,  the  student  may  erase 
all  of  the  guide  lines. 

Cartouches  are  not  only  executed  in  metal  work,  but  are 
often  carved  in  stone  or  wood,  or  modeled  in  plaster  or  terra 
cotta.  They  are  also  sometimes  drawn,  as  on  this  plate,  as 
an  ornament  at  the  top,  or  in  the  center,  of  some  certificate, 
or  other  paper  of  a  documentary  character.  Its  purpose,  in 
nearly  all  cases,  whether  carved  in  stone  or  wood,  or  drawn 
or  printed  on  paper,  is  to  bear  a  device — either  a  number,  a 
title,  or  a  monogram.  There  are  many  forms  of  it,  some 
being  regular,  as  in  this  case,  and  others  being  irregular  and 
eccentric,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  required. 

In  Fig.  4  we  have  an  iron  bracket,  such  as  is  used  in  many 
foreign  cities  as  a  sign  hanger.  It  consists  of  plain  straight 
iron  rods  bent  into  scrolls,  combining  beauty  of  curve  with 
utility  of  purpose.  The  main  rod  of  the  bracket  c  d  is 
5^  inches  long  and  2|  inches  below  the  upper  border  line. 
At  e,  3^  inches  from  c,  a  hanger  extends  to  the  main  wall 
at  /,  If  inches  above  c,  while  from  the  same  point  c  on  the 
under  side  of  the  rod  c  d  the  main  scroll  springs  and  becomes 
tangent  to  the  wall  at  g,  1  inch  below  c.  The  branch  scroll 
is  tangent  to  the  wall  at  //,  2^  inches  below  c,  and  the  other 
tangent  points  at  i  and/,  £  inch  and  2  inches  to  the  right  of 
c,  respectively.  The  other  curves  of  the  scroll,  and  the 
small  ornamental  scrolls  on  the  top  and  sides  of  the  main 
bar  and  hanger,  can  be  proportioned  and  drawn  by  the  eye, 
altering  and  shifting  them  as  the  circumstances  may  dictate. 
The  sign  itself  hangs  below  the  bar  within  a  rectangle 
1^  inches  square,  the  center  of  which  is  at  £,  4£  inches  to  the 
right  of  the  wall  and  H  inches  below  the  bar  cd.  The  rect- 
angle containing  the  sign  should  be  drawn  in  place  and  the 
sign  itself  then  sketched  within  it.  After  the  figure  is  inked, 


FREE II AND  DRAWING. 


all  of  the  guide  lines  should  be 
erased.  The  student  should  take 
plenty  of  time  and  pains  in  draw- 
ing- this  figure,  as  its  style  is  not 
only  useful  for  many  devices  and 
designs,  but  the  same  design  will 
be  used  again  in  this  course  to 
illustrate  an  advanced  branch  of 
ornamental  ironwork.  Not  only 
are  hanging  signs  of  this  character 
used  over  doors  and  on  posts  to 
indicate  a  public  inn  or  other 
announcement,  but  they  are  fre- 
quently used  on  designs  for  menus 
and  other  occasional  cards  as  a 
device  on  which  to  place  the  date, 
or  a  title,  or  even  the  initial  letter 
of  a  sentence. 

The  next  five  figures  on  this 
plate  will  be  sketches  of  objects 
in  perspective,  and,  while  it  is  not 
the  intention  in  any  part  of  this 
course  to  teach  the  theory  of  per- 
spective drawing,  there  are  a  few 
simple  details  concerning  perspec- 
tive representation  that  are  not 
only  useful,  but  in  some  instances 
of  design  positively  necessary. 
In  the  first  place,  the  appearance 
of  a  circle  in  perspective  is  always 
elliptical,  and  when  the  student 
draws  an  ellipse,  either  mechan- 
ically or  freehand,  he  represents 
thereby  the  perspective  view  of  a 
circle.  The  student  should  prac- 
tice frequently  the  drawing  of 
ellipses  of  different  sizes,  and  par- 
ticularly of  different  widths  on 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  29 

the  minor  axis;  for  instance,  he  might  start  with  a  circle 
3  inches  in  diameter  and  then  draw  an  ellipse  3  in.  x  2|  in. 
and  another  3  in.  X  2  in. ,  thus  decreasing  the  length  of  the 
minor  axis  and  maintaining  the  same  length  of  major  axis 
until  this  diminishing  circle  reaches  the  limit  in  a  straight 
line.  Having  done  this,  he  should  draw  inside  of  his  circle 
some  polygon,  as  shown  in  Fig.  18  (a),  either  an  octagon  or 
a  hexagon,  or  even  a  triangle,  and  then  project  horizontally 
across  from  the  circle,  through  all  the  ellipses,  lines  mark- 
ing the  corners  of  the  polygon  where  they  intersect  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  circle.  Short  straight  lines,  connecting 
successively  these  points  in  the  circumferences  of  the  ellip- 
ses, will  give  a  perspective  view  of  the  polygon  inscribed  in 
the  circle,  as  shown  at  (^),  (c),  etc. 

Fig.  5  of  the  drawing  plate  is  a  perspective  view  of  a 
cylinder  and  a  cone,  the  former  standing  on  its  base  and  the 
latter  lying  on  its  side.  The  top  of  the  cylinder  is  an  ellipse 
2^  in.xf  in.,  and  the  bottom  is  a  semiellipse  of  the  same 
size.  The  height  of  the  cylinder  is  2^  inches,  and  straight 
lines  connecting  the  extreme  outside  points  of  the  ellipse 
and  the  semiellipse  complete  the  drawing  of  the  cylinder 
and  represent  it  as  it  would  appear  in  perspective.  To  draw 
the  perspective  view  of  the  cone,  a  straight  line  is  drawn 
from  a  point  1  inch  below  the  right-hand  end,  the  longi- 
tudinal axis  of  the  ellipse  forming  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  to 
a  point  ^  inch  below  and  |  inch  to  the  left  of  the  right-hand 
end  of  the  axis  of  the  ellipse  forming  the  bottom  of  the 
cylinder.  On  this  line  an  ellipse  2^  inches  long  by  f  inch 
wide  is  then  drawn,  similar  to  the  ellipse  forming  the  top  of 
the  cylinder.  From  the  center  of  this  ellipse  draw  a  line 
2  inches  long  perpendicular  to  its  major  axis,  and  consider 
this  line  as  the  axis  of  the  cone.  From  the  right-hand  end 
of  this  line  draw  two  lines  tangent  to  the  curve  of  the  last 
ellipse,  as  shown,  these  lines  forming  the  sides  of  the  cone. 
This  will  complete  the  view  of  the  cylinder  and  cone  in 
perspective,  and  the  portion  of  the  cylinder  that  extends 
behind  the  cone,  which  is  shown  dotted  in  the  drawing, 
should  then  be  erased. 


:50  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

Fig.  (')  represents  an  octagonal  pyramid.  The  base  of  the 
pyramid  shows  an  octagon  in  perspective,  which  is  drawn 
within  an  ellipse  2{  inches  high  by  f  inch  wide.  Perpen- 
dicular to  the  major  axis  of  this  ellipse  a  line  is  drawn 
2  inches  long,  which  is  the  axis  of  the  pyramid,  and  from 
the  right-hand  end  of  this  line,  straight  lines  are  drawn  con- 
necting the  corners  of  the  octagon  with  the  apex  of  the  pyra- 
mid, thus  representing  that  figure  in  perspective. 

Fig.  7  is  a  perspective  view  of  an  ordinary  tumbler,  which, 
though  slightly  more  complicated,  and  thereby  demanding 
greater  care  in  execution,  is  no  more  difficult  to  draw  than 
either  of  the  previous  figures.  The  top  of  the  tumbler  is  an 
ellipse  2f  inches  long  by  f  inch  wide,  and  the  bottom  is  one- 
half  of  a  regular  :K)-sided  polygon  drawn  within  an  ellipse 
2  inches  long  by  i  inch  wide.  The  distance  between  the 
major  axes  of  the  two  ellipses  is  3  inches,  and  the  sides  of 
the  tumbler  are  drawn  tangent  to  the  extreme  ends  of  the 
curves.  Above  the  bottom  of  the  tumbler  1^  inches,  a  third 
ellipse  is  drawn  lightly,  to  indicate  the  point  where  the 
fluting  starts.  Within  the  two  lower  ellipses  two  semi- 
polygons  are  drawn  in  perspective,  each  with  fifteen  sides. 
These  semipolygons  should  first  be  laid  out  in  a  semicircle 
above  and  below  the  major  axes  of  the  two  lower  ellipses,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  10,  and  the  points  of  intersection  of  their  sides 
with  the  semicircle  projected  to  the  ellipses  of  the  tumbler, 
in  order  to  locate  the  points  to  draw  the  polygon  in  per- 
spective. It  will  be  observed  that  this  figure  is  simply  a 
combination  of  the  essential  points  of  the  two  previous 
problems. 

Fig.  8  is  a  vase,  the  outline  of  which  is  precisely  the  same 
as  Fig.  21  of  the  previous  plate,  except  that  this  view  repre- 
sents the  vase  in  perspective,  while  the  one  on  the  previous 
plate  was  simply  its  outline  in  elevation.  Where  straight 
horizontal  lines  mark  the  details  of  the  previous  sketch, 
ellipses  now  show  those  parts  in  perspective.  The  ellipse 
forming  the  top  of  the  vase  is  a  very  thin  one,  and  the 
student  should  exercise  care  to  insure  the  evenness  of  its 
curve.  Draw  all  the  parts  lightly  in  pencil;  make  the  curves 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


31 


as  perfect  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  inking  process  may 
be  carried  out  neatly  and  without  any  irregular  breaks. 

The  last  figure  on  this  plate  (Fig.  9)  is  another  vase  with 
which  is  combined  the  border  drawn  in  Fig.  8  of  the  pre- 
vious plate.  The  height  of  the  vase  from  the  center  of  the 
ellipse  a  forming  its  top  to  the  center  of  the  ellipse  b  form- 
ing its  base,  is  4  inches,  and  the  longitudinal  axes  of  these 
two  ellipses  are  If  inches  and  If  inches,  respectively.  The 
length  of  the  neck  from  the  center  of  the  ellipse  a  to  the 
center  of  the  ellipse  c  is  1  inch,  and 
from  a  to  the  bottom  of  the  bulb  d 
is  3|  inches.  The  diameter  of  the 
smallest  part  of  the  neck  is  \  inch, 
and  the  lines  gradually  curve  out 
toward  £,  where  the  diameter  is 
|  inch.  The  border  around  the 
thickest  part  of  the  vase  (which  is 
2|  inches  in  diameter)  is  |  inch 
wide,  and  the  line  that  forms  the 
axis  of  the  upper  ellipse  of  this 
border,  is  1|  inches  below  a.  It 
will  be  necessary  to  divide  the  band 
within  which  the  border  is  drawn 
into  4  equal  parts,  horizontally,  as 
the  straight  band  was  divided  in 
Fig.  13  of  the  previous  plate.  Then 
above  the  vase  a  semicircle  must  be  drawn  and  divided  into 
24  equal  parts,  as  shown  for  the  tumbler  in  Fig.  19.  Ver- 
tical lines  drawn  from  the  semicircle  across  the  border  band 
will  locate  points  for  the  vertical  lines  in  the  fret  border, 
and  the  horizontal  lines  may  then  be  drawn,  connecting 
them  as  was  done  with  Fig.  8  of  the  previous  plate;  but  the 
horizontal  lines  in  this  case  will  each  be  part  of  an  ellipse 
parallel  to  the  top  and  bottom  elliptical  lines  forming  the 
band  around  the  vase.  The  vertical  lines  of  the  border  will 
curve  slightly  as  they  approach  the  sides  of  the  vase  until 
the  extreme  outside  lines  on  the  right  and  left,  will  be 
practically  parallel  to  the  outline  of  the  vase  at  those  points. 


FIG.  19. 


32  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §2 

11.  A11  the  figures  on  this  plate  should  be  practiced  on 
other  sheets  of  paper  until  the  student  is  satisfied  that  he 
can  draw  each  of  them  evenly  and  neatly  on  his  drawing 
plate.  The  oftcner  he  practices  the  figures  in  this  prelimi- 
nary work,  the  easier  he  will  find  the  subsequent  problems. 
A  few  extra  hours  of  labor  expended  in  this  part  of  the 
course  will  save  much  time  toward  the  end.  When  the 
plate  is  completed  in  pencil,  the  student  will  draw  the  border 
line  with  his  ruling  pen  and  T  square,  as  shown,  print  in 
the  title  in  letters  j%  inch  high,  and  ink  in  all  the  figures 
freehand.  The  construction  lines  may  then  all  be  erasedt 
leaving  nothing  but  the  full  lines  of  the  drawings.  The 
name,  date,  and  class  letter  and  number  can  then  be  neatly 
printed  in  their  customary  places. 


DRAWING    PLATE,   TITLE:    NATURATj    LEAVES. 

155.  It  is  assumed  that  by  this  time  the  student  is  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  the  use  of  his  drawing  instruments, 
both  mechanical  and  freehand,  and  in  the  following  plates 
he  will  not  be  called  upon  to  ink  in  his  drawings  with  the 
freehand  pen  except  in  special  cases.  He  should  keep  prac- 
ticing the  making  of  freehand  sketches  with  the  pen,  how- 
ever, in  order  that  he  may  not  lose  the  dexterity  he  has 
already  acquired. 

This  plate  consists  of  12  figures,  each  representing  some 
form  of  a  natural  leaf,  and  is  intended  not  only  to  familiarize 
the  student  with  the  characteristics  of  each  kind  of  leaf 
represented,  but  also  to  accustom  him  to  the  study  of  the 
botanical  and  geometrical  details  of  all  vegetable  forms  used 
in  design.  Nearly  all  leaves  and  flowers  are  governed  in 
outline  by  some  geometrical  figure,  and  by  varying  this  out- 
line slightly,  various  leaf  forms  are  made  different,  while 
the  leaves  are  at  the  same  time  governed  by  the  same  geo- 
metrical figure.  Draw  a  horizontal  line  through  the  plate 
~>  inches  belo\\-  the  upper  border  line,  and  divide  the  space 
vecn  this  line  and  the  border  line  into  six  rectangles; 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  33 

the  ones  containing  Figs.  1,  2,  and  3  will  measure  2£  inches 
in  width  each,  and  the  ones  containing  Figs.  4  and  5  will 
measure  2£  inches  and  2-£  inches,  respectively. 

Fig.  1  is  the  leaf  of  the  nasturtium,  the  governing  outline 
of  which  is  a  circle,  and  the  student  should  first  draw  lightly 
a  circle  about  2%  inches  in  diameter,  the  exact  dimensions 
being  of  no  great  importance.  It  will  be  observed  that 
there  are  seven  sides  or  lobes  to  the  leaf,  the  lower  one  of 
which  is  the  largest,  and  the  others  unequal.  These  lobes 
are  expressed  by  making  slight  notches  in  the  circumference 


Fio.  30. 

of  the  circle  and  then  rounding  them  off  into  the  main  curve. 
The  stem  joins  the  leaf  not  on  the  edge  but  at  a  point  about 
one-third  the  way  up,  and  from  it  radiate  seven  veins,  each 
toward  one  of  the  notches  in  the  circumference  of  the  leaf. 
It  will  now  be  observed  that  two  of  these  veins  form  an 
almost  straight  line  across  the  lower  portion  of  the  leaf, 
above  which  three  of  the  veins  radiate  at  almost  equal  angles. 
These  are  geometrical  characteristics  of  the  nasturtium  leaf, 
and  if  followed  out  will  enable  the  student  at  all  times  to 
present  a  fair  portrayal  of  this  class  of  vegetation.  When 
used  for  embroidery  work  and  other  classes  of  design  wherein 
a  softness  of  outline  is  more  consistent  with  the  character  of 
the  material,  the  leaf  may  be  expressed  more  freely,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  20.  In  drawing  this  and  the  subsequent 


;J4  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §2 

figures  on  this  plate,  it  is  not  desired  that  the  student  shall 
actually  copy  the  drawing  plate.  His  work  will  not  be 
judged  according  to  his  accuracy  compared  with  the  copy, 
but  according  to  the  clearness  with  which  he  represents  the 
object  portrayed.  It  would  be  better  for  him,  if  possible,  to 
procure  a  nasturtium  leaf  from  the  plant  and  make  a  draw- 
ing of  that,  using  the  characteristics  in  this  description  as  a 
guide  in  the  procedure.  As  said  in  the  early  part  of  this 
Paper,  "A  drawing  is  the  expression  of  an  idea  by  means 
of  a  picture,"  and  the  student's  work  on  these  plant-forms 
will  be  judged  by  the  clearness  with  which  he  expresses 
his  idea  rather  than  by  the  accuracy  with  which  he  copies 
the  figure. 

The  second  figure  on  this  plate  is  a  leaf  of  the  pond  lily, 
also  based  on  the  principle  of  the  circle,  but  with  an  even 
circumference  that  is  deeply  indented  at  the  bottom.  At 
the  point  of  indentation  a  long  stem  joins  the  leaf,  from 
which  thin  veins  radiate  toward  the  circumference.  The 
length  of  the  stem  is  a  matter  of  little  importance,  as  in 
nature  it  is  governed  by  the  depth  of  the  water  in  which  the 
lily  is  growing.  The  leaf  in  size  may  be  the  same  or  slightly 
larger  than  the  nasturtium  leaf,  and  the  stem  may  be  curled 
as  shown  on  the  drawing,  or,  if  the  student  works  from  the 
actual  lily  leaf,  instead  of  this  copy,  the  stem  may  be  drawn 
as  he  sees  it  in  his  original. 

The  leaves  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  4  are  characteristic  of  a 
number  of  plants,  and  vary  in  size  with  each  plant.  Their 
governing  outline  is  practically  an  ellipse,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines.  The  student  will  draw  for  them  two  ellipses 
about  3  inches  in  length  by  2  inches  in  width,  as  shown  by 
the  dotted  lines,  and  then  draw  one  side  of  Fig.  3,  corre- 
sponding closely  to  the  circumference  of  the  ellipse.  The 
other  side  diverges  from  the  ellipse  as  shown,  the  leaf  being 
pointed  at  its  upper  end  and  slightly  indented  at  the  bottom. 
A  long  vein  extends  from  the  stem  of  the  leaf,  which  joins 
it  at  the  bottom  indentation,  almost  to  the  point  at  the  top, 
and  the  side  veins  branch  to  the  right  and  left.  After  the 
drawing  is  completed,  the  construction  lines  may  be  erased. 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


35 


The  drawing  of  Fig.  4  is  precisely  the  same  as  Fig.  3, 
except  the  edges  of  the  leaf  are  serrated  or  notched,  as  shown, 
and  there  is  no  indentation  at  the  bottom,  the  leaf  ending  in 
a  point  at  that  end  also,  but  more  abruptly  than  at  the  top. 
This  is  the  style  of  leaf  characteristic  of  the  rose  and  of  the 
elm  tree,  though  on  the  former  plant  it  forms  one  of  a  group 
of  leaflets,  and  is  seldom  more  than  half  this  size. 

The  spray  of  leaves  in  Fig.  5  is  from  the  maple  tree,  and 
their  governing  outline  is  a  pentagon,  not  a  regular  pentagon 
with  equal  sides,  but  one  whose  base  is  considerably  longer 
than  the  other  four  sides.  The  indentations  in  the  top  lobe 
are  more  marked  than  those  in  the  side  lobe,  and  vary  in 
different  leaves.  In  fact,  no  two  leaves  are  ever  exactly 
alike,  though  the  characteristics  are  always  the  same,  and 
there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  portraying  a  maple  leaf  so 
that  it  is  unmistakable  for  this  class  of  vegetation.  The 
lower  lobes  of  the  leaf  are  some- 
times rounded,  and  in  the  younger 
leaves  the  indentations  are  much 
less  marked  than  in  the  mature 
ones.  In  drawing  the  spray  shown 
in  Fig.  5,  draw  the  large  leaf  first, 
and  fit  the  smaller  ones  in  under  it, 
as  shown,  not  necessarily  following 
this  exact  arrangement,  but  placed 
in  such  a  manner  that  they  will 
show  the  characteristics  of  the  leaf. 
Maple  leaves  are  easily  obtained  in 
nearly  all  communities,  and  the  student  should  certainly 
draw  this  figure  from  nature,  if  possible.  The  maple 
leaf  can  be  characteristically  and  conventionally  designed 
within  the  sides  of  a  regular  pentagon,  however,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  21. 

Fig.  6  is  a  cluster  of  one  class  of  horse-chestnut  leaves,  the 
governing  outline  of  which  is  practically  a  hexagon.  Each 
leaf  is  complete  in  itself,  but  as  they  always  grow  in  a  cluster 
at  the  end  of  a  stem,  with  almost  invariably  the  same  num- 
ber in  a  bunch,  it  is  proper  that  they  should  be  so  represented, 


FIG.  21. 


36  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

especially  in  design,  as  this  is  one  of  the  geometrical 
characteristics  of  their  botany.  The  true  horse-chestnut 
leaf  has  invariably  seven  leaves  in  a  cluster,  arranged  in  the 
same  manner  as  this  example,  but  there  is  another  variety 
of  the  same  tree  that  has  either  five  or  seven  in  a  cluster. 
To  draw  Fig.  (5,  first  construct  a  general  outline  of  the  group 
as  explained  in  Fig.  1,  and  then  draw  in  the  individual 
leaflets.  The  general  outline  will  be  somewhat  the  shape  of 
a  hexagon,  with  the  outside  points  of  the  leaves  and  extrem- 
ity of  the  stem  in  each  of  its  angles.  In  drawing  the  leaves, 
observe  that  they  are  larger  at  their  outer  ends  than  toward 
the  stem ;  that  the  notches  in  their  edges  extend  into  the 
leaf  toward  the  stem,  and  are  not  sharp,  straight  lines,  but 
curved  in  the  same  direction  as  the  veins  of  the  leaf.  The 
last  point  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  leaf  is  considerably 
longer  than  the  others,  and  tends  to  give  a  spear-like  termi- 
nation. The  peculiar  form  of  the  leaves  permits  them  to 
cluster  nicely  in  a  bunch,  as  shown,  and  enables  them  to  be 
conventionalized  and  easily  used  in  certain  forms  of  geo- 
metrical designs. 

These  six  figures,  constituting  the  upper  half  of  the  plate, 
will  serve  to  familiarize  the  student  as  far  as  is  necessary 
with  the  geometrical  and  botanical  characteristics  of  these 
particular  forms.  He  should  make  it  a  point,  however,  to 
study  other  forms,  and  broaden  his  knowledge  as  much  as 
possible  in  the  observation  of  nature.  He  should  frequently 
draw  the  leaves  of  different  plants,  and  if  his  drawing  does 
not  convey  a  satisfactory  idea  of  the  leaf  itself,  he  should 
analyze  his  drawing  carefully,  and  also  the  natural  leaf,  and 
learn  wherein  he  has  altered  or  omitted  some  detail  that 
stamps  the  character  of  the  original.  These  leaves  have 
been  drawn  singly  because  they  are  usually  seen  singly  on 
the  trees,  or  on  the  ground  under  the  trees,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  horse-chestnut  leaf;  they  are  seldom  associated 
in  the  mind  as  clusters.  In  the  next  six  figures,  however,  a 
class  of  leaves  is  considered  that  are  associated  with  the  vine 
or  plant  on  which  they  grow,  and  their  characteristics  must 
be  considered,  not  singly,  but  together  with  the  plant  and 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  37 

surrounding  details.  Figs.  1  to  6  represent,  also,  a  develop- 
ment in  botanical  evolution,  the  theory  being  that  the  funda- 
mental leaf  form  was  circular,  as  in  Fig.  2.  The  notches  in 
the  outline  of  Fig.  1  are  indicative  of  a  lack  of  nourishment 
being  conveyed  to  the  margin  of  the  leaf  at  certain  points, 
thereby  retarding  its  growth ;  the  serrations  in  the  edges  of 
Fig.  4  are  caused  by  a  similar  lack  of  circulation  of  sap,  until 
finally  we  come  to  Fig.  5,  where  the  serrations  are  so 
developed  as  to  make  lobes  on  the  edges  of  the  leaf,  and 
in  Fig.  6  to  cause  the  leaves  to  grow  in  clusters  at  the  end 
of  one  stem,  instead  of  a  single  leaf.  The  different  forms 
of  the  edges  of  leaves  so  developed  are  due  to  the  system  of 
veining.  A  study  in  comparison  of  different  forms  of  leaves 
will  soon  place  the  student  in  a  position  to  judge  and  rec- 
ognize the  proper  veining  of  a  great  many  leaves,  according 
to  the  indentation  of  their  edges.  The  nasturtium  leaf  is 
indented  regularly  at  the  end  of  each  vein,  and  the  veins  are 
regular  and  straight.  In  the  maple  leaf  the  indentations 
are  very  irregular,  because  the  veining  of  the  leaf  is  irregu- 
lar and  forms  a  network  throughout  the  whole  tissue.  In 
the  horse-chestnut  leaf  the  general  veining  is  regular  in  each 
individual  cluster,  thereby  causing  an  even  subdivision  into 
a  uniform  set  of  individual  leaflets,  while  the  edges  of  each 
leaflet  are  serrated,  owing  to  a  slight  irregularity  in  their 
individual  veining. 

Fig.  7  is  a  spray  of  the  vine  and  leaves  of  the  convolvulus, 
which  is  of  the  class  of  vine  to  which  the  morning  glory 
belongs,  and  the  student  will  not  attempt  to  draw  the  same 
until  he  has,  on  a  separate  piece  of  paper,  frequently  prac- 
ticed the  drawing  of  the  individual  leaves  of  the  plant.  The 
number  of  leaves  on  the  stem  will  depend  on  the  object  from 
which  he  draws.  If  he  can  secure  a  slip  of  the  vine  itself, 
he  will  draw  it  as  he  sees  it,  locating  the  leaves  as  he  sees 
them,  and  not  in  any  way  attempting  to  copy  his  drawing 
plate,  but  referring  to  same  for  the  expression  of  the  stronger 
characteristics  of  the  growth.  If  he  cannot  secure  a  slip 
of  the  plant,  he  will  have  to  make  his  drawing  from  the 
plate.  The  leaves  of  this  example  are  triangular,  slightly 


38 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


FIG.  22. 


indented  at  the  bottom,  and  manifest  a  strong  inclination 
to  curl  up  slightly  at  the  edges.  They  are  a  soft  leaf, 
and  rarely  lie  stiff  and  flat,  like  the  maple.  In  drawing 
them,  the  student  will  observe  the  char- 
acter of  the  veining,  the  arrangement 
on  each  side  of  the  main  stem,  noting 
that  they  branch  alternately,  and  that 
no  two  of  them  start  from  the  same 
point.  The  leaf  that  is  turned  over, 
showing  its  under  side,  indicates  the 
method  and  manner  of  the  stem  join- 
ing the  surface,  and  in  making  the 
drawing  the  student  has  but  to  bear 
in  mind  that  the  governing  prin- 
ciple is  an  isosceles  triangle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  22,  and 
the  arrangement  on  the  stem  is  an  alternation  on  oppo- 
site sides. 

Fig.  8  is  a  spray  of  ivy  leaves,  each  of  which  may  be  drawn 
within  a  pentagon,  as  shown  in  Fig.  23,  in  the  same  manner 
as  was  described  for  the  maple  leaf.  The  edges  of  the  ivy 
leaf  are  not  serrated,  and  the  sides  of  each  lobe  are  distinctly 
curved.  Each  leaf  has  five  lobes;  the  stems  join  them  in  a 
stiff,  angular  way  at  the  lower  indentation,  and  are  heavy  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  leaf.  The  leaves  do  not  show 
the  wavy  outline  of  the  morning 
glory,  for  they  are  naturally  stiff 
and  somewhat  clumsy.  The  stem 
from  which  the  leaves  branch  is 
of  a  woody  texture,  and  is  much 
stiffer  and  harder  than  the  stem 
of  the  morning  glory;  therefore, 
it  does  not  grow  in  a  wavy  line, 
and  care  should  be  taken  that, 
though  the  ivy  is  a  vine  and  mani- 
fests as  strong  an  inclination  to 
climb  as  does  the  morning  glory, 
t  does  so  in  a  stiffer  and  more  regular  manner — a  charac- 
teristic that  should  always  be  expressed  when  it  is  used  in 


FIG.  28. 


§  a  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  3<> 

design.  The  student  will  draw  Fig.  8  as  shown,  or  from 
the  natural  leaves,  if  such  are  obtainable. 

Fig.  9  shows  the  long  stem  of  the  lily.  There  are  several 
classes  of  lilies  that  manifest  different  characteristics  in 
some  of  their  details.  This  view  shows  the  principle  on 
which  the  leaves  branch  from  the  stiff  stem,  their  tend- 
ency being  to  grow  upwards  toward  the  flowers,  which 
bloom  at  the  top.  Each  individual  leaf  is  a  plain  straight 
blade,  sometimes  with  a  strongly  marked  central  vein,  and 
at  other  times  with  a  number  of  veins  running  through  it. 
Its  lower  end  wraps  itself  partly  around  the  stem,  and  in 
some  classes,  such  as  the  tiger  lily,  the  flowers  blossom  at 
the  juncture  of  the  leaf  and  the  stem,  and  after  the  flowers 
have  blossomed,  a  round  seed  marks  the  place  where  they 
stood  on  the  stem. 

Fig.  10  is  a  branch  of  the  olive  tree — a  very  difficult  speci- 
men to  get  from  which  to  draw  from  nature,  but  an  impor- 
tant leaf  in  design,  as  it  has  always  been  held  as  the  emblem 
of  peace.  The  leaf  of  the  olive  is  long  and  narrow,  very 
slightly  widened  at  its  upper  end,  somewhat  after  the  gen- 
eral shape  of  the  chestnut,  but  softer  and  not  so  conspicu- 
ously unequal.  The  fruit  grows  on  branches  under  the 
leaves,  with  six  or  eight  olives  on  each  branch.  In  drawing 
this  little  spray,  it  is  simply  necessary  to  indicate  the  main 
branch  about  as  shown  on  the  plate,  and  draw  the  two  leaves 
that  terminate  at  its  upper  end.  The  next  two  leaves  below 
these  grow  out  of  opposite  sides  of  the  main  stem,  from 
the  same  point  in  height.  They  are  not  directly  over  the 
ones  below  or  under  the  ones  above,  but  take  a  position 
half  way  around  the  stem  from  these,  so  that  if  the  stem 
were  so  held  that  any  two  of  its  leaves  pointed  toward 
the  north  and  south,  the  pair  next  above  and  below  them 
would  point  toward  the  east  and  west.  This  is  a  char- 
acteristic that  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  in  represent- 
ing the  plant. 

Fig.  11  is  a  branch  of  laurel  introduced,  here  with  the  olive 
on  account  of  its  symbolism,  the  laurel  wreath  being  an 
emblem  of  victory.  The  shape  of  the  laurel  leaf  is  not 


40  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

widely  different  from  the  olive,  but  it  is  much  larger,  being 
3  inches  or  more  in  length,  while  the  olive  is  seldom  more 
than  H  inehes  or  2  inches.  The  leaves  of  the  laurel  grow 
all  around  the  stem,  branching  alternately  from  opposite 
sides,  and  the  edges,  though  not  serrated  like  the  rose  leaf, 
are  indented  by  a  series  of  rounded  notches  at  the  end  of 
each  vein.  The  flowers  ot  the  laurel  blossom  in  the  angle 
between  the  leaf  and  the  stem. 

The  last  figure  on  this  plate  (Fig.  12)  shows  two  kinds  of 
the  palm — a  plant  emblematic  of  royalty.  The  palm  leaf  is 
used  largely  by  the  Egyptians  in  many  of  their  designs,  and 
from  it  were  made  several  devices  and  utensils  important  in 
the  ceremonies  and  customs  of  the  complicated  formalities 
of  the  ancient  Egyptian  society.  In  drawing  the  palm  as 
shown  on  the  plate,  the  student  will  observe  that  in  one 
example  of  it  the  leaf  radiates  from  the  end  of  the  stem,  and 
he  must  bear  in  mind  that  though  the  edge  is  ragged  and 
broken  up  into  a  number  of  string-like  terminations,  its  nat- 
ural unbroken  form  is  practically  circular,  and  that  the  deli- 
cacy of  the  tissue  composing  the  leaves  causes  them  to  be 
shredded  on  the  edges  when  blown  together  in  high  winds 
or  handled  roughly  when  taken  from  the  tree.  This  variety 
is  known  as  the  fan  palm.  The  other  form  of  palm,  called 
the  feather  pal  in,  is  similar  in  texture  of  leaf  to  the  first, 
but  its  veins  radiate  from  a  line  instead  of  from  a  point;  this 
difference  of  radiation  will  recall  to  the  student  Figs.  18,  19, 
and  20  of  his  first  freehand  drawing  plate. 

The  student  will  complete  this  plate  and  draw  the  border 
line,  but  ink  in  none  of  the  figures.  It  is  desired  that  he 
should  become  accustomed  to  drawing  rapidly  and  readily 
with  the  pencil  and  expressing  himself  with  as  few  lines  as 
possible.  He  must  bear  in  mind  that  he  is  not  to  be  a  copy- 
ist, that  no  two  leaves  in  nature  are  alike,  and,  therefore,  it 
is  unnecessary  that  he  shoiild  portray  any  of  the  leaves  on 
this  drawing  plate  exactly  like  the  example  we  send  him. 
However,  he  must  remember  that  in  each  case  he  is  solving 
a  problem  ;  he  is  endeavoring  to  express  by  means  of  a  pic- 
ture the  idea  of  a  certain  form  of  leaf,  and  that  failure  to 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  41 

express  all  the  characteristics  of  that  particular  leaf  makes 
the  solution  of  this  problem  incorrect.  The  title  may  be  put 
on  the  top  of  the  plate,  as  shown,  and  the  name,  date,  and 
class  letter  and  number  printed  below  the  margin  line  as 
heretofore. 


DRAWING    PLATE,   TITLE :    FLOWERS    AND    CON- 
VENTIONALIZED   LEAVES. 

13.  On  this  drawing  plate  the  student  is  given  a  few 
examples  of  familiar  flowers,  and  the  same  remarks  concern- 
ing the  method  of  drawing  them  applies  here  as  with  the 
previous  plate.  Original  flowers  are  to  be  preferred  rather 
than  printed  copies,  and  whenever  such  are  obtainable,  the 
student  should  avail  himself  of  the  opportunity  to  draw 
them. 

In  Fig.  1  is  shown  the  morning  glory,  its  bud,  and  the 
method  of  its  branching  from  the  vine.  The  flower  itself  is 
trumpet-shaped,  the  upper  end  being  practically  circular, 
which  makes  it  elliptical  when  shown  in  perspective,  as  it  is 
here.  The  sides  of  the  tube  forming  the  lower  part  of  the 
flower  are  curved  slightly,  and  gradually  approach  a  straight 
line  toward  the  stem.  Observe  that  where  they  join,  the 
little  leaves  around  the  bottom  of  the  tube  have  pointed  ends 
and  form  a  cup  called  the  calyx,  in  which  the  trumpet-like 
flower  sets.  Observe  that  the  bud  of  the  flower  is  twisted, 
producing  a  screw-like  effect,  as  shown  to  the  right  of  the 
open  blossom. 

Before  drawing  this  plate,  divide  the  paper  lengthwise 
through  the  center,  6f  inches  above  the  lower  border  line, 
and  above  this  center  line  construct  five  rectangles  3^  inches 
in  width  and  5  inches  high,  with  the  center  line  as  their 
common  base.  Proceed  to  draw  Fig.  1  in  the  first  rect- 
angle by  constructing  an  ellipse  about  3  inches  above 
the  center  line  of  the  plate  and  about  2^  inches  in  length 
on  its  major  axis,  and  \  inch  or  a  little  more  on  its  minor 
axis.  Within  this  ellipse,  describe  the  slightly  scalloped 
edge  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  blossom.  Draw  the  lines 


42  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

forming  the  trumpet-like  tube  of  the  lower  portion  of  the 
blossom,  and  then  draw  the  stem.  The  main  stem  of  the 
vine  runs  from  the  lower  right-hand  to  the  upper  left-hand 
corner,  and  by  noting  where  it  crosses  the  upper  edge  of  the 
blossom,  its  position  on  the  plate  can  be  determined  with 
sufficient  accuracy.  The  leaves  and  bud  may  then  be  drawn 
in  their  relative  positions. 

If  the  flower  is  drawn  from  nature,  as  heretofore  sug- 
gested, the  student  need  not  follow  closely  these  direc- 
tions, except  so  far  as  they  apply  to  inserting  each  problem 
in  its  proper  rectangle. 

Fig.  2  shows  two  flowers  somewhat  alike  in  their  general 
formation  but  possessing  characteristics  that  stamp  them  so 
forcibly  that  it  is  impossible  to  mistake  one  for  the  other; 
these  are  the  phlox  and  the  carnation.  Both  flowers  possess 
five  petals  radiating  from  the  center.  The  petals  are  larger 
at  their  outer  ends  and  taper  almost  to  a  point  where  they 
come  together.  They  enter  the  top  of  an  almost  straight 
tube  that  is  held  at  the  bottom  by  the  little  green  calyx, 
where  it  joins  them  to  the  stem.  This  tube,  however,  is 
larger  in  the  carnation  than  in  the  phlox,  and  the  carnation 
itself  is  a  larger  flower  than  the  phlox.  The  edges  of  the 
petals  of  the  carnation  are  toothed  very  sharply  and  very 
plainly,  while  the  edges  of  the  phlox  are  round.  The  out- 
line of  the  ends  of  the  flowers  are  practically  governed  by  a 
pentagon,  and  in  drawing  them  the  student  should  be  care- 
ful to  emphasize  the  characteristics  of  each,  the  strongest 
distinctive  characteristics  being  the  round  petal  of  the  phlox 
and  the  toothed  petal  of  the  carnation. 

In  making  the  final  drawing  of  these  flowers  on  the  plate, 
the  student  will  locate  the  first  carnation  of  the  bunch  in  the 
upper  left-hand  corner  of  the  second  square,  as  shown.  He 
will  then  draw  it  so  that  its  stem  will  pass  out  of  the  square 
near  the  lower  right-hand  corner,  and  then  successively  draw 
the  other  two  blossoms  in  place,  to  the  right  and  left  of  the 
first  one.  The  outline  governing  the  ends  of  these  blossoms 
is  practically  elliptical,  although  the  edges  of  the  petals  vary 
more  in  the  carnation  than  they  did  in  the  morning  glory. 


§2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  43 

In  drawing  the  phlox,  observe  that  the  petals  of  the  flower 
form  a  part  of  the  tube  that  connects  the  flower  with  the  stem, 
thus  differing  from  the  carnation,  where  the  petals  grow  out  of 
the  tube.  The  outlining  of  the  petals  is  practically  the  same, 
though  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  the  governing  outline  of  the  top 
of  the  flower  is  an  ellipse,  as  in  the  previous  cases.  Observe 
here  that  the  blossoms  of  the  phlox  are  all  on  one  stem,  while 
with  the  carnation  each  separate  stem  carries  a  flower. 

The  exact  arrangement  of  these  flowers  on  the  plate  is  not 
of  importance  as  long  as  they  are  within  the  second  square. 

In  Fig.  3  is  shown  a  couple  of  sprays  of  a  little  flower 
known  as  the  harebell.  The  flowers  themselves  are  cup- 
shaped  and  hang  from  fine  thread-like  stems  that  grow  alter- 
nately on  opposite  sides  of  the  main  stem.  It  has  no  large 
leaf  like  most  flowers,  but  a  series  of  little  spur-like  projec- 
tions along  the  stem,  as  shown.  The  edges  of  the  flower 
are  indented  by  fine  notches  that  curve  in  from  the  top,  and 
the  spaces  between  these  indentations  rise  to  little  sharp 
points,  giving  the  flower  a  very  pretty  and  strongly  charac- 
terized marking.  The  bud,  as  shown  at  the  top  of  one  of  the 
sprays,  is  formed  by  the  ends  of  the  flowers  closing  over  and 
folding  themselves  within,  and  does  not  twist  around  like  the 
buds  of  .the  morning  glory.  In  drawing  the  figure,  try  to 
keep  the  flowers  in  a  graceful  position;  also  prevent  any 
appearance  of  stiffness  or  forced  regularity,  and  especially  be 
careful  to  draw  them  with  a  light  delicate  touch,  avoiding  a 
crude  hard  line,  as  one  of  the  strongest  characteristics  of  the 
flower  is  its  delicacy,  and  this  would  be  destroyed  by  too 
harsh  a  rendering  of  the  pencil. 

Fig.  4  shows  the  ordinary  dogrose,  the  flower  possessing 
five  petals,  which  radiate  from  the  center  and  are  slightly 
curled  up  on  their  outer  edges.  Where  they  join,  a  series  of 
fine  hair-like  filaments  (botanically  known  as  pistils)  mark  the 
center.  The  leaflets  grow  on  opposite  sides  of  a  thin  stem, 
usually  three  on  each  side  and  one  on  the  end,  and  the  edges 
of  the  leaves  are  sharply  serrated,  as  explained  on  the  previous 
plate.  The  thorn  is  characteristic  of  all  kinds  of  roses,  and 
should  always  be  expressed  as  a  characteristic  of  the  plant. 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


Fig.  5  is  the  common  Held  daisy — a  flower  easily  obtainable 
during  the  month  of  June,  and  a  very  interesting  subject  for 
various  classes  of  design.  It  grows  at  the  end  of  a  long 
stem,  at  the  lower  part  of  which  the  ragged  leaves  branch 
and  spread  on  the  ground.  The  flower  itself  varies  in  size 
from  1  inch  to  1\  inches  in  diameter,  is  practically  circular 
in  outline,  and  consists  of  a  number  of  white  petals  that 
branch  from  a  central  disk  or  sun  in  the  center,  about  one- 
fourth  the  diameter  of  the  whole  flower.  The  petals  vary 
in  number,  and  branch  out  thickly  on  all  sides,  forming  a 
solid  white  disk.  The  side  view  of  the  daisy  shown  on  this 
plate  illustrates  the  tendency  of  the  leaves  to  grow  upwards 
slightly,  and  also  shows  the  thickness  of  the  sun  or  center 
piece  below  the  petals  of  the  flo\ver.  In  drawing  the  daisy,  it 
is  well  to  sketch  in  the  outline  as  a  circle,  and  to  draw  the  sun 
as  a  circle,  and  then,  one  at  a  time,  indicate  the  petals  or 
rays  that  branch  around  the  edge.  The  petals  are  rather 
wider  at  their  outer  end  than  in  the  middle,  and  taper  almost 
to  a  point  where  they  sprout  from  the  flower;  two  deep 
notches  in  the  end  cause  three  teeth  to  be  characteristic  of 
their  outer  extremities. 

Now,  besides  drawing  these  five  examples  of  wild  flowers 
as  shown  on  this  plate,  the  student  should  take  every  oppor- 
tunity to  study  the  flowers 
themselves,  and  after  he  has 
drawn  the  details  of  each  flower 
as  he  sees  it  in  blossom,  it 
should  be  taken  apart  and 
analyzed.  For  example,  we 
take  the  wild  rose  and  pull  it 
apart,  and  make  an  individual 
drawing  of  one  of  the  petals, 
or  of  all  of  them,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  24.  Every  detail  of  every 
part  of  the  plant  should  be  simi- 
larly drawn,  in  order  that  we  may  become  familiar  with  the 
characteristics  of  the  plant  as  separate  from  the  plant  itself. 
The  leaves  in  their  arrangement  on  the  stem  should  be  made 


(c 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  45 

the  subject  of  another  drawing,  and  this  drawing  of  the 
details  of  the  flower  preserved  as  a  guide  to  be  used  when  the 
flower  itself  is  expressed  in  a  conventionalized  design.  The 
practice  of  thus  drawing  the  details  of  a  flower,  or  other  veg- 
etable form,  is  called  plant  analysis,  and  is  the  only  way  by 
which  the  strongest  characteristics  of  every  individual  plant 
can  be  properly  studied. 

In  drawing  the  figures  on  the  upper  half  of  this  plate 
always  outline  the  grouping  first,  as  explained  heretofore. 
Then  draw  the  individual  outline  governing  the  extremities 
of  the  flowers,  etc.,  and  finally  fill  in  and  develop  the  detail. 

The  lower  part  of  this  plate  contains  four  figures,  and 
requires  that  the  plate,  below  the  center  line,  should  be  sub- 
divided as  follows:  The  center  line  of  Fig.  6  is  2f  inches  to 
the  right  of  the  border  line,  and  its  top  is  tangent  to  the 
horizontal  center  line  of  the  plate.  The  center  line  of  Fig.  8 
is  8|  inches  to  the  right  of  the  border  line,  and  the  rect- 
angle containing  Fig.  8  is  3  inches  wide  by  6  inches  high. 
Fig.  7  is  then  fitted  in  between  this  rectangle  and  Fig.  6. 
The  wall  on  which  the  bracket  in  Fig.  0  hangs  is  about  \  inch 
to  the  right  of  Fig.  8.  By  locating  these  points  on  the  plate 
the  student  will  have  no  trouble  in  drawing  his  figures  in 
the  proper  places. 

With  Fig.  0  of  this  plate  we  take  up  the  first  part  of  the 
subject  of  conventionalized  forms.  It  is  seldom  that  a  plant 
or  other  form  from  nature  can  be  used  in  a  design  with 
reason  without  reducing  it  to  a  plain  practical  form  that  is 
conventional  or  symbolic  more  than  pictorial.  Fig.  6  is  a 
conventionalized  form  of  the  acanthus  leaf,  and  as  we  draw 
it  we  will  endeavor  to  get  a  better  idea  of  the  meaning  of 
the  word  conventional.  In  the  first  place,  the  outline  of  this 
figure  is  based  on  the  ellipse,  and  the  student's  first  move 
will  be  to  construct  in  the  corner  rectangle  of  his  drawing 
plate  a  semiellipse  4.V  inches  high  and  4  inches  wide. 
Within  this  he  will  draw  the  main  outline  of  the  lobes  of  the 
leaf,  as  shown  in  Fig.  25,  observing  that  these  lobes  are 
farther  apart  as  he  approaches  the  top  of  the  leaf,  or,  in 
other  words,  are  closer  together  at  the  wider  portions  of  the 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


leaf.  There  is  a  central  lobe  and  three  smaller  ones  on  each 
side.  The  top  lines  of  the  side  lobes  are  curved,  but  are 
nearly  horizontal  in  position,  and  the  side  lines  of  the  lobe 
are  inclined  slightly  toward  the  center  of  the  leaf.  The 
middle  vein  is  a  straight  line  on  the  major  axis  of  the  ellipse, 
and  the  side  veins  curve  from  the  points  of  the  lobe  to  the 
bottom  line,  as  shown,  and  approach  the  central  vein  as  they 
reach  the  bottom ;  in  other  words,  if  all  the  veins  of  the  leaf 
were  continued  downwards,  they  would  eventually  meet  in 
a  point  like  the  lines  radiating  from  a  point  in  Fig.  18  of 
Drawing  Plate,  title,  Linear  Elements.  The  acanthus  leaf 

is  now  drawn  by  serrating 
the  edges  of  these  lobes, 
following  the  drawing  plate 
as  closely  as  possible.  The 
inner  angles  of  the  lobe  are 
then  carried  into  the  leaf 
in  the  form  of  loops,  the 
vertical  lines  usually  being 
the  ones  that  govern  the 
direction  of  the  loop.  The 
leaf  lobes  are  then  drawn 
as  though  lapping  over  one 
another  slightly,  and  extra 
lines  are  drawn  indicating 
the  sides  of  the  pipes  or 
tubes  that  are  naturally 
formed  in  the  leaf  where  these  loops  exist.  This  can 
be  more  readily  understood  by  referring  to  Fig.  39,  where 
the  surface  of  the  conventionalized  leaf  is  shown  as  it  usually 
appears  when  carved  in  stone  or  wood  or  modeled  in  clay  or 
plaster.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  sides  of  the  leaf  on  this 
plate  are  symmetrical,  that  the  leaf  is  perfectly  flat  in  the 
drawing,  and  no  attempt  is  made  to  shade  it.  The  exist- 
ence of  the  last  line  drawn  from  the  loops  down  is  indicative 
of  the  raised  surface  of  the  pipes  on  the  leaf.  This  is  the 
expression  of  an  idea  by  means  of  a  picture.  It  is  not  a 
picture  of  the  acanthus  leaf  as  it  appears  in  nature,  but  a 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  47 

picture  of  the  characteristics  of  the  leaf — characteristics  that 
are  themselves  emphasized  beyond  the  mere  drawing  of  the 
leaf  itself,  and  it  is  the  emphasis  of  these  characteristics  that 
distinguish  in  the  -drawing  of  a  leaf  or  flower  the  naturalistic 
and  the  conventional  rendering.  Flowers  and  leaves  may 
be  rendered  naturalistically  if  they  are  painted  on  canvas  or 
printed  on  paper,  but  if  woven  in  cloth  or  carpet,  or  used  as 
a  part  of  a  wall-paper  design,  or  burned  in  leather,  the 
details  of  the  process  by  which  they  are  thus  reproduced 
will  not  permit  of  an  accurate  portrayal  of  them  naturalis- 
tically. They  are  therefore  conventionalized,  and  lines  indi- 
cating their  strongest  characteristics  are  woven,  printed,  or 
carved  to  stamp  the  leaf  for  what  it  is.  In  drawing  this 
figure,  complete  both  sides.  The  example  on  the  drawing 
plate  was  left  unfinished  on  the  right  side  in  order  to  show 
the  relation  of  the  semiellipse. 

Fig.  7  is  a  side  view  of  the  conventionalized  acanthus  as  it 
is  sometimes  used  in  connection  with  scrollwork  on  brackets. 
The  S-like  outline  of  the  leaf  is  first  drawn  about  4£  inches 
high;  the  lower  curve  is  then  drawn  to  measure  %^  inches 
across,  and  the  upper  curve  about  f  inch  across.  The  lobes  are 
then  outlined  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  the  previous  case, 
and  the  indentations  drawn  within  these  outlines,  as  before. 
The  veins  running  from  the  center  of  the  lobes  are  then 
drawn,  following  the  contour  of  the  lobe  itself,  and  finally 
becoming  tangent  to  the  main  curve  at  the  outside  of  the 
leaf.  After  the  leaf  has  been  drawn,  the  guide  lines,  which 
are  shown  dotted  on  the  original  drawing  plate,  may  be 
erased  by  the  student,  and  the  drawing  of  the  leaf  itself 
completed. 

In  Fig.  8  is  shown  a  panel  in  which  is  drawn  a  conven- 
tionalized design  based  on  the  growth  of  the  ivy,  and  which 
is,  with  slight  alterations,  a  suitable  design  for  carved  wood 
or  burnt-leather  work,  or  even  for  embroidery.  The  details 
are  not  as  conventionally  rendered  as  would  be  necessary  for 
certain  woven  work,  such  as  damask  linen,  or  silk,  but  the 
two  sides  of  the  design  are  precisely  alike,  and  the  details 
all  geometrically  arranged  so  as  to  reduce  the  whole  to  a 


48 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


mathematical  principle.  In  drawing  the  panel,  make  its 
dimensions  :5  inches  wide  by  0  inches  high,  and  divide  it 
into  eight  equal  rectangles  each  1  \  inches  square,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  W.  Within  these  rectangles  then  draw  a  number  of 
pentagons,  more  or  less  irregular,  according  to  the  outlines 
__a  of  the  various  leaves,  and  gen- 

erally indicate  the  lines  of  the 
main  stem  of  the  vine  where 
it  crosses  the  dividing  lines  of 
the  squares.  Notice  that  the 
center  of  the  main  stem  crosses 
the  center  line  of  the  panel  ab 
about  one-fourth  of  a  square 
above  the  bottom,  and  it  curves 
so  as  to  cross  the  horizontal 
line  cd  a  little  less  than  one- 
half  a  square  each  side  of  the 
center  line.  The  two  stems 
then  cross  each  other  on  the 
center  line  one-third  of  a  square 
above  the  horizontal  line  c  d, 
and  they  cross  the  horizontal 
line  e  f  about  one-half  a  square 
to  the  right  and  left  of  the  cen- 
ter line.  These  stems  then  cross 
the  line  gh  about  one-third  of  a 
square  each  side  of  the  center  line  a  b,  and  cross  each 
other  on  the  line  a  b  one-fourth  of  a  square  below  the 
horizontal  line  gJi. 

These  measurements  are  not  absolute  and  should  be 
judged  by  the  student  entirely  by  the  eye.  A  principle  to 
be  observed  is  that  the  arrangement  of  the  panel  is  based  on 
the  same  rules  concerning  foliated  ornament  that  were  given 
in  connection  with  the  Drawing  Plate,  title,  Linear  Elements, 
under  Art.  9.  The  strongest  growth  should  be  at  the  bot- 
tom, the  arrangement  of  the  leaves  and  area  covered  by 
them  should  diminish  toward  the  top,  and  though  it  is  not 
the  nature  of  the  ivy  that  its  leaves  should  grow  tangentially 


6 

PIG.  2f>. 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  49 

from  the  stem,  the  stems  should  be  so  arranged  that  they 
appear  to  grow  gracefully  and  rationally,  one  out  of  the 
other,  without  abruptness  or  severity.  The  main  stem, 
however,  should  be  stiff,  rigid,  and  geometrical,  as  explained 
in  the  instructions  for  drawing  the  ivy  leaf  on  the  previous 
plate,  as  this  stem  is  stiff  and  woody  in  its  natural  growth. 
Within  the  pentagons  that  have  been  previously  drawn  to 
indicate  the  locations  of  the  leaves,  carefully  outline  the  five 
lobes  of  the  ivy  leaf  and  connect  them  with  a  gracefully 
curved  stem  with  the  main  lines  of  the  growth.  Enclose 
the  whole  design  in  a  border  line,  as  shown. 

In  using  such  a  design  as  this  for  practical  work,  the 
relative  sizes  of  the  stems  and  tendrils  may  be  materially 
altered.  Certain  materials  and  methods  of  handling  will 
permit  a  much  more  delicate  treatment  than  is  here  shown, 
while  other  conditions  will  demand  that  all  the  lines  be 
bolder  and  that  some  of  the  details  at  the  top  of  the  panel 
be  suppressed  entirely.  For  instance,  if  the  design  were  to 
be  embroidered,  the  colors  to  be  used  would  determine 
largely  the  strength  of  the  line  of  the  stem,  dark  colors 
always  looking  heavier  than  light  ones.  The  curve  and 
arrangement  of  the  fine  tendrils  at  the  top  would  also  be 
altered,  as  the  tracing  of  these  lines  would  be  governed  by 
the  possibilities  of  the  handling  of  the  thread  employed. 
If  the  design  were  to  be  carved  in  wood,  the  tendrils  at  the 
top  would  probably  be  omitted  entirely,  and  heavier  forms 
replace  the  smaller  leaves.  The  nature  of  woodwork  would 
not  permit  so  delicate  a  treatment  at  the  top,  and  as  the 
omission  of  the  tendrils  would  leave  a  blank  space  that 
would  look  unfinished,  the  leaves  themselves  should  be 
enlarged  to  satisfy  the  feeling  that  the  proper  area  at  the 
top  had  been  covered.  In  the  smaller'  stems,  throughout 
the  body  of  the  panel,  the  design  would  probably  require 
strengthening,  that  it  might  be  better  expressed  in  wood, 
and  their  increase  would  require  a  general  increase  in  the 
thickness  of  the  main  stem  throughout,  in  order  that  the  pro- 
portions of  one  to  another  might  remain  the  same.  After 
the  student  has  carefully  outlined  these  details  he  should 


50  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §2 

strengthen  up  the  general  lines  of  his  drawing,  clean  off  his 
guide  lines,  and  then  finish  the  figure  in  pencil. 

Fig.  9  is  a  bracket  and  hanging  sign,  similar  in  every 
respect  concerning  its  general  outline  to  the  bracket  and 
sign  drawn  by  the  student  on  Drawing  Plate,  title,  Sur- 
faces and  Solids.  The  student  will  draw  the  outline  of  this 
bracket  and  sign  precisely  as  before,  but  where  the  lines  of 
ironwork  split  and  branch  into  separate  scrolls,  he  will  cover 
the  joint  with  a  drawing  of  a  conventionalized  leaf,  the 
details  of  which  he  has  just  studied.  The  length,  size,  and 
proportions  of  the  different  parts  of  the  leaf  he  must  judge 
by  his  eye,  observing  tnat  the  outline  of  the  leaf  follows 


closely  the  outline  of  the  ironwork  that  it  covers,  and  observ- 
ing, also,  as  he  draws  it,  that  he  is  converting  a  plain  strap- 
iron  bracket  into  an  ornamental  device,  requiring  in  its 
execution  the  greatest  skill  in  the  ironworkers'  art.  It  is 
also  well  for  him  to  know  that  in  the  execution  of  a  design 
of  this  character  for  an  ironwork  bracket  that  might  be 
used  either  as  a  sign  hanger,  or  as  a  design  for  a  chandelier 
or  gas  bracket,  he  has  to  exercise  the  same  judgment  in  the 
formation  of  the  leaf  as  was  necessary  when  he  made  his 
drawing  of  the  cartouch  on  his  second  freehand  drawing 
plate.  The  leaf  itself  must  be  cut  out  of  plain  sheet  iron 
by  the  ironworker,  and  hammered  into  the  shape  expressed 
by  the  designer  on  his  drawing.  It  is  well,  then,  for  the 
student  to  study  what  the  developed  shape  of  this  leaf  would 
be  if  it  were  flattened  out.  He  will  probably  then  find  by 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  51 

experiment  that  the  leaf  can  be  improved  in  design  by 
varying  some  of  its  dimensions.  Referring  to  Fig.  27,  we 
see  a  piece  of  iron  scroll  projecting 
from  a  hammered  ornamental  iron 
leaf,  while  in  Fig.  28  a  developed 
form  of  this  leaf  is  shown  in  out- 
line before  it  is  hammered  into  this 
shape.  It  is  a  simple  matter,  and  a 
very  instructive  practice,  for  the 
student  to  experiment  in  drawing 
and  making  these  devices  of  paper 
or  thin  metal,  as  was  suggested 
previously  in  the  drawing  of  the 
cartouch.  Very  thin  brass  or  cop- 
per is  an  excellent  material  to  prac- 
tice with.  It  may  be  readily  cut  to 
any  desired  shape  with  ordinary 
scissors,  and  bent  and  creased  with 
the  fingers  to  bring  it  up  to  the 
finished  shape,  and  the  student  that 
can  both  draw  and  model  his  designs 
will  be  in  better  shape  to  execute 
satisfactory  compositions  than  the 
one  that  is  simply  satisfied  to  express 
his  ideas  on  paper. 

The  student   will   finish   drawing 
the  bracket  as  shown  on  the  draw- 
ing plate,  and,  after  drawing  the  border  and  inserting  in  the 
title  at  the  top,  will  letter  his  name,  date,  and  class  letter 
and  number  below  the  border  line  as  heretofore.     The  fig- 
ures on  this  plate  will  remain  in  pencil. 


DRAWING  PJLATE,  TITLE:  BRUSH  WORK. 

14.  As  expressed  in  the  first  part  of  this  course,  design 
in  its  most  elementary  state  consists  of  an  arrangement  of 
lines,  these  lines  forming  the  boundaries  of  several  shapes 
or  definite  forms;  they  may  be  straight  or  broken,  heavy  or 


52  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

fine,  firm  or  delicate.  This  variation  of  the  quality  of  each 
line,  combined  with  the  possibilities  of  variation  in  arrange- 
ment, renders  it  possible,  as  already  explained,  to  give  a 
great  variety  of  expression  to  a  design  that  consists  of  lines 
only.  Certain  classes  of  work  depend  entirely  on  this  line 
arrangement  for  their  value  as  artistic  productions.  In 
dress  goods,  a  great  variety  of  plaids,  though  influenced  by 
the  combination  and  comparison  of  their  colors,  are  depend- 
ent more  largely  for  their  beauty  on  the  arrangement, 
weight,  firmness,  and  delicacy  of  the  lines  of  color  that  con- 
stitute their  design.  In  leaded  and  stained  glasswork  the 
necessity  of  uniting  the  multitude  of  pieces  with  strips  of 
H -shaped  lead,  compels  the  design  to  assume  in  its  composi- 
tion a  number  of  irregular  black  lines  that  the  skill  of  the 
designer  arranges  to  form  a  part  of  his  composition  and 
therefore  renders  inconspicuous.  The  design  of  a  window 
may  consist  of  delicate  figures  and  foliage,  or  it  may  be 
simply  a  heraldic  or  symbolic  device,  but  the  lines  of  the 
lead  work  must  each  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  compo- 
sition; otherwise  they  will  interfere  with  the  repose  of  the 
whole  and  render  it  inartistic  and  unsatisfactory.  In  order 
to  produce  lines  expressive  of  beauty,  the  hands  must  be 
well  trained  to  execute  the  ideas  of  the  mind,  and  the  mind 
well  trained  in  matters  of  art  and  composition.  It  is  for  the 
former  of  these  requirements  that  the  student  has  been 
drilled  on  these  simple  exercises  of  freehand  drawing,  but 
the  latter  can  be  acquired  by  him  only  through  a  persistent 
study  and  analysis  of  the  works  of  art  through  all  ages. 

In  the  drawing  of  lines  with  a  pen  or  pencil  there  are 
limits  to  the  weight,  strength,  and  firmness  that  can  be 
expressed,  but  with  the  brush  there  are  no  such  limitations, 
and  by  varying  the  size  of  the  instrument,  and  the  shade  of 
the  ink,  or  other  medium  used,  there  is  no  extreme  that  may 
not  be  reached  in  the  matter  of  boldness,  power,  and  nobility 
of  expression  in  any  design,  whether  it  is  composed  of  indi- 
vidual lines  or  of  shaded  surfaces.  In  drawing  lines  with  a 
brush  there  are  many  kinds  of  instruments  that  will  produce 
the  required  results,  but  the  Japanese  painting  brush,  shown 


§2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  53 

in  Fig.  29,  is  undoubtedly  the  simplest,  after  the  student  has 
become  accustomed  to  its  management  and  the  peculiar 
method  of  holding  it.*  The  brush  is  not  held  as  is  an 
ordinary  water-color  paint  brush,  but  is  managed  after  the 


FIG.  29. 

Japanese  method,  and  held  as  shown  in  Fig.  30,  in  order  that 
there  may  be  perfect  freedom  of  movement  to  the  hand  and 
power  to  produce  even  results  in  all  directions.  To  draw 
simple  lines  with  the  brush,  the  student  should  practice 
according  to  the  following  directions  until  he  has  a9quired 
such  dexterity  in  its  management  that  he  feels  confident  of 
properly  executing  the  problems  on  the  plate.  If  the  student 
finds  he  can  do  better  with  an  ordi- 
nary brush,  there  is  no  objection  to 
his  using  it. 

In  the  general  practice  with  brush 
work  the  student  should  not  use  his 
ink  in  full  strength ;  in  fact,  it  is  a 
great  deal  better  that  his  wash  draw- 
ings should  be  executed  with  a  very 
dilute  ink  producing  a  gray  wash, 
instead  of  a  heavy  black  silhouette- 
like  effect.  For  this  purpose,  Staf- 
ford's "Not  Waterproof"  or  Hig-  ^""'  Fl(J  ^ 
gins'  "General  Drawing"  ink  may 

be  diluted  with  four  to  eight  times  its  bulk  of  water,  and 
used  to  produce  a  tint  about  the  same  as  that  shown  on 
the  accompanying  plates.  A  good  way  to  do  is  to  pour  a 


*  If  the  Japanese  brush  is  not  used,  the  student  may  practice  with 
ordinary  camel' s-hair  brushes,  such  as  are  used  in  general  water-color 
work.  These  are  held  in  much  the  same  manner  as  a  pencil,  but  the 
hand  is  not  as  free  as  with  the  Japanese  brush.  We,  therefore,  advise 
the  student  just  beginning  to  study  brush  work,  to  use  the  style  of 
brush  illustrated  in  Fig.  29.  All  new  brushes  should  be  soaked  in 
water  one  hour  before  they  are  used  the  first  time,  and  washed  clean 
and  wiped  after  using.  After  wiping  the  brush,  it  should  be  moistened 
in  the  mouth  and  its  hairs  drawn  to  a  point  between  the  lips.  It  may 
then  be  put  away  and  allowed  to  dry. 


.H  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

small  quantity  of  ink  (2  or  3  drops  being  usually  sufficient) 
in  a  small  saucer  and  add  thereto  enough  water  to  reduce  it 
to  the  desired  color.  This  may  be  determined,  after  stirring 
the  brush  in  it  thoroughly,  by  drawing  a  light  wash  of  it 
over  a  piece  of  paper  and  allowing  it  to  dry.  If  the  tint  is 
lighter  than  that  on  the  drawing  plate,  or  is  very  much 
darker,  then  more  ink  or  water  must  be  added  to  change  its 
tint  to  the  one  required.  A  very  little  practice  will  enable 
the  student  to  judge  the  amount  of  dilution  necessary. 
Drawing  ink  thus  diluted  is  usually  called  "color" — a  term 
used  in  brush  work,  generally,  to  indicate  that  there  is  a 
variation  of  tint  rather  than  an  even  monotone. 

It  may  also  be  pointed  out  that  where  a  drawing  is  to  be 
executed  in  ink  and  afterwards  washed  in,  in  color,  as  in  the 
wash  tint  above  described,  that  the  outline  of  the  figure 
should  be  drawn  in  waterproof  drawing  ink,  and  the  wash 
work  done  with  dilute  general  ink.  The  reasons  for  this 
should  be  apparent.  If  the  outline  is  drawn  in  general 
drawing  ink,  which  is  not  waterproof,  the  wet  color  will 
cause  it  to  spread  and  become  ragged  on  the  edges  and  con- 
taminate the  tint  and  destroy  the  even  effect  of  the  outline. 
Whereas,  if  the  outline  is  drawn  in  the  waterproof  ink,  and 
then  waterproof  ink  is  diluted  to  use  for  the  wash  work,  the 
ingredients  added  to  the  ink  to  make  it  waterproof  are 
antagonistic  to  its  dilution,  and  the  wash  of  this  ink  is  likely 
to  settle  in  uneven  spots  and  make  an  irregular  and  dirty- 
looking  drawing. 

1  5.  Whenever  a  considerable  surface  is  to  be  washed  over 
with  an  even  tint  of  color  it  is  necessary  that  plenty  of  color 
be  first  taken  in  the  brush,  and  the  upper  left-hand  corner, 
or  other  convenient  point  of  the  subject,  be  lightly  drawn  in 
with  the  point  of  the  brush,  and  the  color  then  spread  evenly 
and  generously  over  the  entire  surface.  The  color  can  be 
carried  to  any  extent  by  recharging  the  brush  from  time  to 
time  and  adding  it  to  the  surface  that  is  not  yet  dry,  or  to 
the  bottom  of  the  previously  applied  color,  which  should 
always  be  allowed  to  remain  in  a  slight  pool  while  the  brush 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  55 

is  recharged.  Should  the  color  dry,  or  become  nearly  dry, 
it  will  be  impossible  to  apply  a  new  tint  over  it  of  greater 
extent,  without  showing  a  line  where  the  first  wash  stopped. 
In  applying  color  in  this  manner,  the  student  should  incline 
his  board  so  that  the  color  will  flow  downwards,  and  can  be 
led  in  even  advances  by  means  of  the  brush;  and  each  time 
the  brush  is  recharged  with  color  it  should  be  stirred  around 
in  the  saucer  so  as  to  evenly  distribute  the  pigment,  or  col- 
oring matter,  through  the  fluid. 

The  student  can  readily  learn  the  value  of  placing  one 
tint  over  another  by  drawing  in  pencil  a  rectangle  8  inches 
square,  and  dividing  it  by  means  of  vertical  and  horizontal 
lines  into  sixty-four  equal  squares  of  1  inch  each.  If  he  will 
then  tint  evenly  with  a  very  pale  shade  of  color  the  upper 
left-hand  square  of  the  main  rectangle  and  allow  it  to  dry 
thoroughly,  and  then  with  the  same  tint  of  color  wash  over 
the  two  upper  left-hand  squares  within  the  rectangle,  and 
allow  these  to  dry,  and  so  on  repeatedly  until  he  has  covered 
the  entire  area  of  8  in.  X  8  in. ,  he  will  have  in  the  tipper  left- 
hand  corner  of  the  main  rectangle  sixty-four  applications  of 
one  tint,  and  in  the  lower  right-hand  corner,  one  applica- 
tion. The  gradual  and  almost  imperceptible  grading  of  one 
square  into  another,  from  the  palest  shade  to  the-  darkest, 
will  give  him  a  valuable  insight  into  the  use  of  color  for 
expressing  light  and  shade.  In  trying  this  experiment, 
however,  he  must  be  sure  that  each  successive  wash  dries 
thoroughly  before  the  next  one  is  applied.  As  this  will 
take  some  time,  it  is  well  that  he  should  not  attempt  to 
execute  the  whole  sixty-four  squares  at  one  sitting,  but 
paint  a  few  at  a  time  from  day  to  day  until  the  entire 
work  is  completed. 

16.  Pin  a  sheet  of  paper  to  the  board  as  usual,  and  hold 
the  brush  between  the  thumb  and  middle  finger,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  30,  steadying  it  with  the  forefinger.  Dip  the  brush  in 
the  ink  and  hold  it  perpendicularly  over  the  paper;  draw  a 
vertical  straight  line  with  a  single  movement  or  sweep  of 
the  arm,  keeping  the  hand  free  from  the  paper  and  an  even 


56 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


pressure  on  the  point  of  the  brush;  never  permit  the  brush 
to  become  inclined  in  any  direction,  and  do  not  allow  any 
movement  of  the  fingers  to  change  the  form  or  direction  of 
the  line,  all  of  which  should  be  controlled  entirely  by  the 
movement  of  the  arm.  Do  not  draw  the  line  as  with  a  pen- 
cil, according  to  instructions  given  on  your  first  drawing 
plate — draw  it  slowly  and  continuously,  and  never  allow  the 
movement  to  become  jerky.  Confine  the  entire  attention  to 
the  execution  of  a  single  line,  and  pay  no  heed  to  any  waver- 
ing, or  apparent  irregularity,  as  these  are  of  no  importance 
whatever,  and  often  add  character  to  the  work  of  a  designer. 
The  main  object  sought  should  be  the  maintenance  of  a 
uniform  width  of  line,  by  the  keeping  of  a  uniform  pressure 

on  the  brush  throughout 
the  entire  length  of  the 
stroke,  thereby  avoiding 
such  results  as  shown 
at  (a]  in  Fig.  31,  which 
are  due  to  a  gradual 
increase  or  decrease  of 
pressure  as  the  stroke 

progresses.       At    (b]    is 
(c)         (d)     s]lown  a  lme  that  js  Of 

imequal  thickness,  due 
to  varying  pressures  throughout  the  stroke.  A  line  such  as 
.shown  at  (c)  is  not  objectionable,  although  it  is  not  perfectly 
straight;  it  is  of  uniform  weight,  and  expresses  a  direct 
connection  between  two  points,  and  is,  therefore,  satisfac- 
tory for  brush-work  design.  A  ruled  line  like  (d),  however, 
has  no  artistic  value  whatever,  and  .should  never  be  used  in 
any  other  than  absolutely  mechanical  work.  Draw  these 
lines  repeatedly  on  separate  pieces  of  paper  until  you  are 
proficient  in  making  them  vertical  and  horizontal,  and  par- 
allel to  one  another. 

Now  repeat  the  first  six  figures  execiited  on  Drawing 
Plate,  title,  Linear  Elements,  carrying  them  out  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  for  brush  drawing  instead  of  the  rules  for 
pen  drawing.  Make  the  lines  about  i  inch  in  breadth  and 


FIG.  31. 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  57 

about  (j  inches  long,  and  execute  them  in  one  even  stroke. 
After  acquiring"  proficiency  in  this  work  of  rendering  a  single 
even  line,  the  student  may  attempt  the  expression  of  a  con- 
ventional form  by  a  single  stroke  of  the  brush.  In 
doing  this,  the  student  charges  his  brush  thoroughly 
with  color,  laying  the  point  lightly  on  the  paper,  and 
drawing  the  brush  toward  him  with  an  even  straight 
stroke,  gradually  increasing  in  pressure,  until  at  the 
center  of  the  stroke  he  is  utilizing  the  full  width  of 
the  brush;  and  then  decreasing  the  pressure  until 
the  end  terminates  in  the  point,  thus  producing  a 
leaf-like  form  such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  32.  Repeat  Fif, 
this  practice,  making  the  forms  vertical,  horizontal, 
and  inclined;  then  attempt  the  drawing  of  the  form  shown 
in  Fig.  33  (a).  The  only  difference  between  this  and  the 
previous  figure  is  that  its  end  is  round  instead 
4^  |^  of  pointed,  and  the  point  of  greatest  breadth 

I    /       is  nearer  the  upper  end  than  the  middle  of 
•      |    I        the  stroke.    The  regulation  of  this  is  by  brush 

\  I        pressure  entirely,  but  in  starting  a  stroke  of 

1 1         this   kind   it  is  necessary  to   draw  with   the 
\l         point   of   the   brush   a   short   curve,   such    as 

n»  shown  in  Fig.  33  (£),  and  while  this  curve 
FIO.  33.  is  still  wet,  the  end  of  the  brush  is  pressed 
down  beneath  it  until  the  hairs  spread  suf- 
ficiently to  include  it  in  the  general  stroke  that  follows. 
This  form  may  also  be  drawn  in  the  same  manner  as 
that  shown  in  Fig.  32,  the  stroke  being- 
carried  only  half  way  and  the  lower  edge 
being  finished  with  a  small  curve.  This 
will  produce  a  form  like  Fig.  33,  but 
upside  down.  Having  drawn  these  two 
forms  repeatedly  until  the  student  can 

produce  them  so  uniformlv  that  several 

f   ,  . .  FIG.  :w. 

or  them  side  by  side  appear  to  be  almost 

exactly  alike,  he  may  attempt  to  draw  the  same  figures 
curved  instead  of  straight,  following  the  single  and  com- 
pound curves  shown  in  Fig.  34. 


x  ^v 

iff- 


08  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §2 

17.  Having  practiced  this  brush  work  sufficiently  to 
become  thoroughly  familiar  with  it,  the  student  may  now 
attempt  Fig.  1  of  the  drawing  plate.  This  consists  of  the 
elements  of  a  border,  Greek  in  its  origin,  but  formed  entirely 
of  single  strokes  of  the  brush ;  in  fact,  a  large  proportion  of 
certain  classes  of  Greek  and  Roman  mural  design  is  gov- 
erned in  its  main  characteristics  by  the  limitations  of  form 
that  cau  be  derived  from  single  brush  strokes.  Each  section 
of  Fig.  1  consists  of  a  single  stroke  drawn  as  above  explained. 
Preliminary  to  drawing  Fig.  1,  the  student  should  draw  the 
border  line  of  his  plate  in  pencil,  and  then  divide  the  plate 
by  a  horizontal  pencil  line  a  b}  \  inch  above  center  of  plate. 
The  upper  half  of  the  plate  should  then  be  divided  so  as  to 
include  five  figures,  as  follows:  At  distances  f  inch  and 
If  inches  from  the  left  border  line,  and  1  inch  and  2^  inches 
below  the  top,  lines  are  drawn  parallel  to  the  border  lines, 
within  which  the  details  of  Fig.  1  are  drawn,  as  shown.  To 
the  right  of  the  left  border  line,  3|-  inches,  a  perpendicular 
line  is  drawn  to  form  the  center  line  of  Fig.  2.  Between 
the  center  lines  of  Fig.  2  and  Fig.  3  a  space  of  3f  inches  is 
left,  and  between  the  center  line  of  Fig.  3  and  that  of  Fig.  4 
another  space  of  4^  inches  is  left.  In  the  space  between  the 
center  line  of  Fig.  4  and  the  border  of  the  plate,  Fig.  5  is 
drawn,  so  that  its  right  extremity  extends  to  within  \  inch 
of  the  border  line  and  its  lower  left  extremity  extends  to  a 
point  hereafter  to  be  described.  The  part  of  the  plate  below 
a  b  is  again  divided  by  a  horizontal  line  c  d,  and  vertical  lines 
through  this  lower  half  of  the  plate  are  drawn,  dividing  it 
into  ten  equal  rectangles,  within  which  the  figures  are 
drawn,  as  hereafter  described. 

The  lines  already  drawn  for  Fig.  1  parallel  to  the  border 
line,  may  now  be  divided  by  light  pencil  lines  into  six 
squares,  the  corner  one  being  left  blank,  while  in  each  of  the 
other  five  is  one  of  the  devices  characteristic  of  the  border. 
In  the  center  of  each  square  draw  a  vertical  brush  stroke 
similar  to  Fig.  32  of  the  practice  strokes  just  explained,  but 
with  its  widest  part  near  the  top;  and  alternately  on  the  right 
and  left  of  this  stroke,  commencing  at  a  point  half  way  up 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  59 

the  square  and  almost  touching  its  sides,  draw  a  curved 
stroke  similar  to  a  of  Fig.  34  of  the  practice  strokes.  Beneath 
these,  and  half  way  between  the  second  strokes  and  the  bot- 
tom of  the  square,  draw  a  third  brush  stroke  on  each  side 
the  center  similar  to  b  of  the  practice  strokes,  thus  comple- 
ting one  section  of  the  border.  Repeat  this  operation  in  each 
of  the  squares,  as  shown  on  the  plate,  being  careful  to  keep 
all  the  strokes  of  uniform  thickness  and  color  with  those  of 
the  preceding  section. 

To  draw  Fig.  2,  the  student  has  simply  to  combine  a  num- 
ber of  brush  forms  similar  to  Figs.  33  and  34  of  the  practice 
strokes,  except  that  they  are  considerably  larger,  the  entire 
height  of  Fig.  2  being  3£  inches.  This  figure  is  also  of  Greek 
origin,  and  is  used  in  various  positions  of  mural  decoration 
and  border  work,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  execution  of  the  next 
drawing  plate.  The  governing  outline  of  the  figure  is  ellip- 
tical, and  the  student  may  lightly  sketch  an  ellipse  that  is 
3|  inches  wide  and  6  inches  long  as  the  governing  outline  of  the 
strokes  of  this  figure.  The  top  and  side  of  the  ellipse  should 
be  \  inch  below  and  \  inch  to  the  right  of  the  border  lines 
just  drawn.  The  outline  of  the  ellipse  above  the  line  a  b 
should  then  be  divided  on  each  side  of  its  major  axis  into 
four  parts  similar  to  the  division  of  the  ellipse  for  the  draw- 
ing of  the  conventionalized  leaf  on  the  previous  plate.  The 
points  of  division  should  locate  the  position  of  each  brush 
stroke  intended  to  compose  this  figure.  The  student,  if  he 
so  desires,  may  draw  lightly  in  pencil  the  outline  of  each  one 
of  these  strokes,  in  order  that  he  may  be  more  accurately 
guided  in  laying  the  stroke  with  his  brush;  but  the  lines  thus 
drawn  should  be  so  light  that  they  will  not  show  after  the 
color  is  applied,  but  if  they  do  show,  do  not  try  to  erase  them, 
as  it  cannot  be  done  without  reducing  the  tint  of  the  color 
used  in  the  brush  work. 

Fig.  3  is  a  device  commonly  known  as  the  flcur-dc-lis, 
which,  though  usually  considered  as  typical  of  French  design, 
is  also  found  in  Italian  and  German  work,  of  the  15th  and 
16th  centuries.  The  origin  of  the  form  is,  as  its  name 
implies,  the  lily.  The  term  flcur-dc-lis  literally  translated 


CO  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

means  "flower  of  the  lily."  It  is  extremely  conventional- 
ized, and  resembles  but  slightly  the  type  from  which  it  is 
derived,  having  been  reduced  to  its  present  form  by  the  lim- 
itations imposed  through  brush-work  rendering.  To  draw 
this  figure,  the  student  should  lay  off  at  an  angle  of  45°  each 
side  of  its  center  line  a  distance  equal  to  the  height  of  Fig.  2. 
He  should  use  this  measurement  as  the  side  of  a  square, 
drawn  lightly  in  pencil  with  his  45°  triangle,  as  shown  by 
the  construction  lines.  Within  this  square  he  may  draw 
lightly  in  outline  the  figure  as  shown,  and  then  fill  in  the 
outlined  form  with  strokes  of  the  brush.  It  will  be  practi- 
cally impossible  to  make  each  of  these  strokes  with  a  single 
stroke  of  the  brush ;  but,  by  charging  his  brush  with  plenty 
of  color,  and  drawing  first  one  side  of  the  large  stroke  to 
completion,  and  then  the  other  side,  before  the  color  last 
laid  has  a  chance  to  dry,  he  can  produce  an  even  tint  through- 
out the  figure,  as  explained  in  the  preliminary  instructions 
on  brush  work. 

18.  After  the  figure  is  drawn,  strengthen  the  lines  with 
a  liard  pencil,  and  then  clean  the  plate  around  the  figure 
thoroughly  with  a  soft  rubber  so  that  no  cleaning  up  will  be 
necessary  after  the  brush  work  is  done.  Mix  up  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  wash  ink  and  water  in  a  teacup  or  saucer 
and  do  not  be  afraid  of  keeping  it  pale.  Try  on  a  separate 
piece  of  paper  until  the  proper  tint  is  attained,  and  do  not 
determine  on  the  tint  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry.  Keep  it 
lighter  rather  than  darker  than  the  original  plate.  Be  sure 
that  the  brush  is  full  of  color  and  lay  it  on  liberally,  keeping 
the  board  tilted  so  that  it  will  be  inclined  to  run  downwards, 
but  not  so  much  tilted  that  it  will  run  by  itself  unless  pushed 
with  the  brush.  Keep  a  puddle  of  ink  on  the  plate  below  the 
brush  at  all  times  so  that  there  will  be  no  chance  of  its  dry- 
ing when  you  are  dipping  the  brush  in  the  vessel  again,  and 
push  this  puddle  ahead  of  the  brush  until  the  entire  surface 
is  evenly  covered.  Cover  each  part  as  you  go  along,  and 
never  under  any  circumstances  go  back  over  it.  If  it 
appears  wetter  in  one  place  than  another,  tilt  the  board  so 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  61 

that  this  extra  moisture  may  be  gradually  drained  down  into 
the  advancing  brush  fluid. 

A  few  trials  in  this  way  on  a  separate  piece  of  paper  will 
surprise  you  with  the  simplicity  of  this  operation.  It  requires 
knack  more  than  skill,  and  this  knack  will  come  to  you  sud- 
denly after  repeated  practice.  Do  not  work  too  slowly,  nor 
yet  hurry.  With  this  work  there  is  plenty  of  time  to  do  it 
carefully,  yet  one  must  not  work  so  slowly  as  to  let  any  por- 
tion dry  until  the  entire  figure  is  covered,  as  otherwise  the 
tint  will  be  uneven.  When  the  puddle  of  color  below  the 
brush  has  reached  the  extreme  end  of  the  figure,  the  brush 
may  be  dried  on  a  piece  of  blotting  paper  and  then  applied 
to  the  puddle  to  take  up  the  superfluous  ink,  and  dried 
again  on  the  blotter  as  often  as  is  necessary  to  tone  down 
the  last  part. 

19.  With  Fig.  4  we  return  once  more  to  the  conven- 
tionalized acanthus  leaf;  this  time,  however,  though  ren- 
dered on  the  same  principle  as  Fig.  6  of  the  previous  plate, 
it  is  varied  somewhat  to  accommodate  the  brush-work  limi- 
tations. Construct  as  before,  in  the  drawing  of  Fig.  G  of  the 
previous  plate,  an  ellipse,  and  divide  it  through  the  center 
and  sides  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  the  ellipse  was 
divided  for  drawing  the  first  outlines  of  the  acanthus  leaf. 
On  the  center  line  of  the  ellipse,  on  the  present  drawing 
plate,  draw  the  single  brush  stroke  a  &,  and  on  each  side  of 
this  stroke  draw  the  additional  brush  strokes  shown  atcd, 
e  f,  gh,  etc.  These  strokes  have  for  their  center  lines  the 
penciled  lines  drawn  in  the  original  subdivision  of  the  ellipse, 
and  the  space  between  them  is  divided  as  shown  by  the  sin- 
gle brush  strokes — each'  complete  in  itself  but  not  in  any 
way  lapping  over  its  neighbor.  In  drawing  this  figure,  let 
each  stroke  dry  thoroughly  before  the  one  next  to  it  is  exe- 
cuted. This  may  readily  be  done  by  drawing  every  alternate 
stroke  first,  as  shown  on  the  left  side  of  the  figure,  but  on 
the  student's  plate  the  figure  must  be  completed  on  both 
sides.  A  very  slight  lapping  over  of  one  stroke  on  the  other 
will  then  produce  a  dark  line,  due  to  the  double  tint,  which 


(tt  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §2 

is  not  objectionable  if  not  too  prominent.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  effect  of  one  stroke  not  quite  meeting  its  neighbor  will 
produce  a  white  line  between  the  strokes,  which  is  also 
unobjectionable  if  not  excessive.  The  main  object  to  be 
sought  in  putting  in  the  minor  strokes  is  to  divide  them  up 
in  groups  with  the  main  stroke,  so  that,  in  each  case  where 
the  main  stroke  reaches  to  the  oiitside  border  line,  a  minor 
stroke  will  be  on  each  side  of  it  to  fill  up  the  space  between 
it  and  its  neighbor,  but  not  extending  so  near  the  outline. 
The  principle  expressed  in  this  figure  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  form  illustrated  in  Fig.  28,  in  connection  with  which  was 
explained  the  necessary  development  of  leaf  forms  when 
they  are  to  be  executed  in  wrought- metal  work.  The  prin- 
ciple of  this  conventionalized  acanthus  foliage  is  identical  in 
each  case,  and,  though  many  variations  in  its  outline  may 
be  practiced,  the  governing  lines  will  determine  the  direc- 
tion and  degree  of  radiation  in  the  several  lobes,  whether  the 
indentations  on  the  edge  of  the  leaf  are  based  on  a  regular 
growth,  as  in  this  case,  or  on  an  irregular  or  serrated  leaf,  as 
in  Fig.  6  of  the  previous  plate.  After  the  student  has  drawn 
and  brushed  in  the  work  on  this  figure,  he  may  erase  the 
elliptical  outline,  but  should  bear  in  mind  that  both  sides  of 
the  leaf  are  to  be  finished  in  the  same  manner  as  the  right 
side  on  the  drawing  plate,  the  left  side  being  here  left  skele- 
ton in  form  on  the  specimen  plate  in  order  that  the  strokes 
may  be  correctly  delineated. 

Fig.  5  is  a  side  view  of  the  conventionalized  acanthus  leaf, 
rendered  in  brush  work  similar  to  the  side  view  of  the  pre- 
vious plate.  The  student  will  draw  this  view,  starting  with 
the  stroke  from  a  to  b,  showing  the  full  breadth  of  the  stroke 
at  the  commencement  and  tapering  it  off  until  the  last  two- 
thirds  of  it  is  but  a  mere  line.  The  next  stroke,  starting  at 
c.  is  similar  to  the  first  one,  though  not  so  sharply  curved, 
and  dies  away  into  the  first  about  half  way  down.  The  third 
stroke  d,  however,  is  carried  all  the  way  to  the  bottom.  The 
other  strokes  are  laid  in  succession,  one  after  the  other,  as 
indicated,  each  one  being  allowed  to  dry  before  the  follow- 
If  the  student  should  so  desire,  he  may  outline 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  63 

the  general  grouping  of  the  strokes  with  his  pencil.  In  size 
and  general  proportion,  this  leaf  is  similar  to  the  conven- 
tionalized form  previously  drawn,  though  it  does  not  neces- 
sarily follow  that  it  is  a  side  view  of  the  same  leaf,  the  object 
of  this  work  being  simply  to  familiarize  the  student  with 
his  brush  and  his  medium,  or  color,  in  order  that  he  may 
give  proper  expression  to  his  ideas  by  the  simplest  methods. 

In  the  following  nine  figures  on  the  plate,  the  student  uses 
his  brush  to  express  natural  forms,  some  of  which  he  has 
become  familiar  with  in  his  designs  in  pencil,  though  the 
essential  difference  between  pencil  drawing  and  brush  draw- 
ing lies  in  the  fact  that  one  deals  with  lines  and  the  other 
with  surfaces. 

In  Fig.  6  are  shown  three  simple  flower  forms,  two  of 
which  are  the  phlox  and  the  third  the  carnation.  These 
were  drawn  by  the  student  in  pencil  on  his  fourth  drawing 
plate,  and  the  characteristic  differences  in  their  various  parts 
were  there  explained.  In  drawing  them  now,  the  student 
has  but  to  observe  that  each  part  of  the  flower  consists  of 
one  stroke  of  the  brush.  He  may,  if  he  chooses,  draw  a  light 
pencil  ellipse  to  limit  the  outline  that  will  enclose  the  ends 
of  the  petals  of  each  flower,  and  point  off  approximately  five 
equal  divisions  of  the  circumference  toward  which  these 
petals  will  extend.  When  he  starts  his  flower  form  with  the 
brush,  he  will  lay  one  petal  at  a  time,  each  petal  consisting 
of  but  a  single  stroke-  in  its  general  form,  but  it  may  be 
shaped  or  its  edges  serrated  by  extra  touches  before  the  orig- 
inal stroke  dries.  He  will  then  draw  the  little  cup  at  the 
bottom  of  the  tubular  portion  of  the  flower,  showing  its 
characteristic  points  or  prongs  that  extend  upwards  and 
grasp  the  tube,  and  then,  when  both  the  petals  and  the  cup 
are  dry,  he  will.draw  the  connecting  tube  from  the  center  of 
the  flower  to  the  heart  of  the  cup,  and  afterwards  the  stem 
of  the  flower.  He  must  be  careful  to  give  expression  to 
the  edges  of  the  leaves  or  petals  of  the  two  styles  of  flower, 
as  explained  in  connection  with  their  original  drawing  in 
Drawing  Plate,  title,  Flowers  and  Conventionalized  Leaves. 
Though  it  is  not  necessary  that  *he  student  should  have 


154  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

before  him  the  natural  flower  from  which  to  draw  these 
forms,  it  is  assumed  that  by  this  time  he  is  familiar  with  the 
characteristics  of  at  least  a  few  of  the  principal  plants,  and 
can,  without  copying,  give  expression  to  their  form  on  paper. 
Fig.  6,  like  all  the  following  figures  of  this  plate,  with  the 
exception  of  Fig.  10,  is  drawn  approximately  in  the  center 
of  the  square  laid  out  in  the  original  subdivision  of  the  plate. 

Fig.  7  is  drawn  in  the  square  immediately  below  Fig.  6, 
and  consists  of  a  loose  bunch  of  cattails  or  flag  weed  so 
familiar  along  the  edges  of  swamps  and  marshes.  This  form 
is  much  used  in  many  classes  of  design.  Though  the  stu- 
dent has  not  drawn  anything  like  it  before,  its  delineation  is 
so  simple  that  it  requires  little  or  no  botanical  explanation. 
The  stem  containing  the  cattail  stroke  is  nearly  straight. 
The  leaves  themselves  sprout  stiffly  from  the  root  and  curve 
gracefully  away  from  each  side.  The  stiffness  of  the  leaves 
causes  them  to  be  easily  broken,  and  it  is  rarely  a  bunch  of 
cattails  is  seen  that  some  of  its  long  slender  lance-like  leaves 
are  not  broken  off  sharply  at  an  angle.  This  sharp  broken 
leaf  therefore  becomes  as  characteristic  of  the  cattail  weed 
as  though  it  were  actually  a  detail  of  its  growth. 

In  Fig.  8  are  shown  two  views  of  the  common  butterfly. 
There  is  no  attempt  made  to  show  the  gradation  of  the  color 
or  shading  of  the  wings,  the  idea  being  simply  to  express  the 
outline  in  brush  form.  At  a  the  insect  is  shown  with  its 
wings  spread  as  though  flying,  while  at  b  it  is  shown  as  it 
would  appear  after  alighting,  with  the  wings  folded  up 
over  the  back.  To  draw  this  figure,  the  student  should  con- 
struct in  the  upper  left-hand  corner  of  his  third  square  a 
trapezoid,  the  two  parallel  sides  of  which — top  and  bottom 
— shall  be  2  and  1  \  inches  long,  respectively,  and  spaced 
If  inches  apart.  The  body  of  the  insect  may  then  be  out- 
lined lightly  in  pencil,  \vith  its  head  f  inch  from  the  top  line 
and  its  body  |  inch  in  length.  The  body  may  then  be  drawn 
with  a  brush  and  allowed  to  dry,  and  when  thoroughly  dry 
the  student  may  draw  the  wings  as  shown,  rounding  them  in 
tlie  corners  of  the  trapezoid  and  washing  from  one  pair  of 
wings  across  the  body  to  the  other,  thereby  producing  a 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  65 

double  tint  for  the  body  of  the  insect,  while  but  one  tint  is 
expressed  in  the  wings.  This  is  the  first  application  of 
brush  work  wherein  the  student  has  been  called  on  to  express 
more  than  one  tone  or  shade  in  his  wash  drawings.  By 
mixing  the  ink  rather  pale  and  making  repeated  washes  over 
a  given  spot,  allowing  each  to  dry  before  the  following  one 
is  laid,  a  gradation  of  color  can  be  made  from  a  very  faint 
tint,  scarcely  distinguishable  from  white,  to  absolute  black. 
In  some  classes  of  work,  finer  effects  are  obtained  by  repeated 
washes  than  by  laying  the  body  tint  in  full  strength  of  color 
in  the  beginning. 

At  (b)  in  Fig.  8  the  insect  is  shown  at  rest.  The  wings 
are  folded  straight  over  the  back,  the  front  wing  and  the 
back  wing  being  brought  more  closely  together  than  when 
flying;  and,  as  the  wings  in  this  position  show  their  under 
sides,  it  is  the  back  wing  that  is  seen  lapping  over  the  front 
wing,  instead  of  vice  versa  as  at  (a}.  The  outline  of  the 
individual  wings  is  precisely  the  same  in  either  case,  though 
there  is  a  slight  difference  in  the  body,  the  legs  here  seen 
grasping  the  twig  on  which  the  insect  is  resting  and  the  full 
outline  of  the  side  of  the  body  more  clearly  shown.  It  might 
be  well  to  suggest  that  Fig.  8  (b)  may  be  drawn  within  a  tri- 
angle constructed  by  drawing  a  line  diagonally  through  the 
trapezoid  required  for  the  first  figure.  The  base  of  the  tri- 
angle will  then  become  one  of  the  sides  of  the  trapezoid,  and 
the  distance  necessary  to  close  the  wings  in  lighting  is  shown 
by  the  amount  it  projects  over  the  lower  line  of  the  above 
constructed  triangle.  The  body  itself  of  the  insect  should 
then  be  drawn  independently,  as  its  outline  is  quite  different 
from  (a). 

In  Fig.  9  at  (a)  is  shown  an  insect  composed  entirely  of 
single  brush  strokes,  very  familiar  in  Japanese  design,  that, 
though  it  does  not  bear  any  strong  resemblance  to  any  spe- 
cial living  form,  it  combines  so  many  characteristics  of  a 
number  that  for  want  of  a  better  name  it  is  termed  "a  con- 
ventionalized mosquito."  The  principle  of  its  construction  is 
based  on  the  circle.  The  student  may  draw  in  the  xipper 
left-hand  corner  of  the  proper  square  of  the  drawing  plate  a 


fiG 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


5COC 


Sss^  ^s^  ^a^  ^$&£ 

t      t      t      t 

^  ^ 

'i         7 


Fir,. 


circle  1£  inches  in  diameter,  and  divide  its  circumference 
into  three  equal  parts.  From  the  center  of  the  circle  to  the 
bottom  division  point,  a  single  brush  stroke  is  made,  being 
broad  at  the  top  and  terminating  at  a  point  at  the  bottom. 

This  characterizes  the  body 
of  the  insect.  From  each 
of  the  upper  divisions  of 
the  circle,  a  similar  stroke 
is  drawn  toward  the  cen- 
ter, forming  the  two  upper 
wings;  and  below  these, 
two  similar  and  parallel 
strokes  are  drawn,  form- 
ing the  lower  wings.  The 
head  and  legs  are  then 
indicated  in  the  most  con- 
ventional manner,  simply 
by  two  dots  for  the  protruding  eyes  and  four  fine  filaments  for 
the  visible  legs.  The  combination  of  this  design  in  geometric 
ornament  used  for  wall  decoration  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  35. 

In  Fig.  9  (b]  is  shown  a  familiar  insect  seen  around  swamps 
and  marshes,  usually  termed  the  devil's  darning  needle,  or 
sometimes  called  a  dragon  fly.  The  body  of  this  insect  is 
first  drawn  lightly  in  pencil  so  that  it  measures  If  inches  in 
length,  and  about  \  inch  in  thickness  at  its  thickest  part. 
The  outlines  of  the  wings  may  then  be  sketched  so  that  they 
measure  2^  inches  across.  The  wings  are  arranged  so  that 
the  foremost  edges  of  the  front  wings  and  the  tip  of  the  head 
of  the  insect  are  on  the  same  line.  The  whole  surface  of  the 
fly  is  then  washed  in  with  a  very  dilute  solution  of  India 
ink ;  and  after  this  wash  is  dry,  the  solution  of  ink  may  be 
strengthened,  and  the  darker  portions  of  the  wings  and  the 
body  of  the  insect  painted  a  second  time.  When  this  is  dry, 
the  lower  right-hand  portions  of  the  articulations  of  the  body 
may  then  bo  shaded,  as  shown. 

This  insect  is  introduced  here  to  illustrate  clearly  the  dif- 
ference between  conventional  and  realistic  rendering.  At 
(tf)  is  shown  a  strictly  conventional  insect;  at  (b]  is  shown 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  67 

an  insect  of  the  same  class  arranged  naturalis'dcally,  or  as  it 
is  usually  seen  in  nature. 

Fig.  10  is  a  rather  elaborate  combination  of  brush  line  and 
wash  work  familiar  in  various  designs  for  crests,  monograms, 
and  heraldic  devices.  The  governing  outline  of  the  figure 
is  a  simple  shield,  2\  inches  wide  at  the  top  and  2£  inches 
high  at  the  center.  Within  this,  by  single  brush  strokes,  a 
conventionalized  silhouette  of  a  bird  is  expressed,  and  around 
the  outside  a  wavy  band  to  receive  the  inscription,  when  such 
is  applied.  The  student  may,  if  he  so  desires,  outline  portions 
of  this  suggestively  with  the  pencil,  though  a  careful  study  of 
the  form  will  show  so  conclusively  the  direction  and  termina- 
tion of  each  stroke  that  outlining  seems  hardly  necessary. 
The  finer  forms  may  be  drawn  with  a  pen,  or,  by  careful 
handling,  the  entire  figure  can  be  executed  with  the  brush. 

Fig.  11  is  a  heraldic  silhouette  of  a  lion.  The  form  is 
purely  conventional,  but  by  careful  handling  can  be  arranged 
to  be  expressive  of  life  and  action.  The  student  should 
first  draw  a  line  3  inches  high  and  extending  ^  inch  below 
the  lower  line  of  the  enclosing  rectangle.  From  the  center 
of  this,  draw  a  horizontal  line  to  the  right  If  inches  in  length, 
and  from  the  extremities  of  the  vertical  line  draw  lines  to 
the  point  last  located,  thus  forming  an  isosceles  triangle 
standing  on  one  corner,  as  indicated  by  the  construction  lines. 
One  foot  of  the  animal  then  rests  in  the  lower  corner  of  this 
triangle,  while  another  foot  rests  about  midway  between 
this  and  the  apex.  Of  the  forefeet,  the  right  one  crosses 
the  line  midway  between  the  apex  and  the  base  of  the  tri- 
angle, while  the  left  one  crosses  one-quarter  of  the  distance 
between  the  first  and  the  apex  above.  The  ear  is  in  the 
uppermost  corner  of  the  triangle,  and  the  entire  face  extends 
outside,  so  that  the  side  of  the  triangle  passes  even  with  the 
edge  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  hollow  of  the  back  is  1£  inches 
below  the  top  of  the  ear  and  ^  inch  to  the  right  of  the  vertical 
line.  By  way  of  checking  the  measurements,  it  might  be 
noted  that  the  back  of  the  lion  is  y\  inch  from  the  vertical 
line,  measured  on  the  horizontal  line  marking  the  altitude  of 
the  triangle,  and  on  this  same  horizontal  line  is  f  inch  in 


68  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §2 

thickness.  Having  outlined  the  figure  carefully  in  pencil,  the 
student  will  wash  it  in  with  one  even  tint,  allowing  the  same 
to  dry,  and  then  going  over  the  darkened  parts  as  shown  to 
give  expression  to  the  details.  If  a  second  wash  is  not 
sufficient  to  accomplish  this,  he  may  give  a  third  or  even  a 
fourth  one;  but,  as  soon  as  the  detail  is  denned  and  the 
drawing  expresses  what  is  required,  do  not  apply  any  further 
wash  work,  but  consider  the  figure  complete. 

Fig.  12  is  another  heraldic  device  based  on  a  style  of 
design  usually  termed  grotesque.  In  this  work  the  attri- 
butes or  elements  of  several  different  classes  of  animals  are 
often  combined.  This  example  illustrates  a  figure  that 
might  be  properly  called  a  dragon,  and  though  there  are 
many  different  kinds  and  conceptions  of  this  mythical  form, 
they  all  usually  possess  the  body  of  some  reptile,  the  feet  and 
claws  of  a  feline  animal,  the  wings  of  a  bird  or  occasionally 
of  a  bat,  and  the  head  of  a  carnivorous  bird  or  beast. 

To  draw  Fig.  12,  construct,  4  inches  from  the  right  border 
line,  a  square  2  inches  each  way,  whose  base  is  1^  inches 
above  the  lower  border  line;  f  inch  from  the  right  and  left 
sides  of  this  square,  and  within  it,  draw  two  vertical  lines, 
thus  converting  the  square  into  three  rectangles  each  f  inch 
wide  by  2  inches  high.  Now  draw  a  horizontal  line  through 
all  three  rectangles  and  \\  inches  below  the  top.  These 
lines  are  shown  on  the  drawing  plate,  and  by  comparison 
and  eye  measurement  the  student  may  outline  in  pencil  the 
general  proportions  of  the  grotesque  figure. 

The  head  is  located  on  the  right  vertical  line  of  those 
drawn  within  the  square,  and  the  neck  curves  to  the  left  and 
just  crosses  the  next  line  to  the  left  of  this.  In  crossing 
into  the  lower  right-hand  rectangle,  the  line  of  the  back  of 
the  neck  practically  passes  through  the  intersection  of  the 
vertical  and  horizontal  lines,  just  below  which  point  the  out- 
side of  the  body  comes  within  \  inch  of  the' right  side  of  the 
square.  The  foot  then  extends  outside  of  the  square  \  inch, 
and  \  inch  above  the  horizontal  line.  The  upper  portion  of 
the  wing  is  an  evenly  curved  line,  extending  into  the  upper 
left  rectangle  as  shown,  but  is  ragged  on  its  lower  edge. 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  69 

The  tail  extends  outside  of  the  square,  turns  over,  and  ends 
with  a  scroll  termination  2£  inches  to  the  left  of  the  square. 
After  the  figure  has  been  outlined,  the  student  may  wash  it 
in  and  shade  the  individual  parts  as  in  the  previous  figure, 
indicating  a  roughness  on  the  under  side  of  the  wing  in  the 
same  manner  as  he  indicated  the  feathers  in  Fig.  10,  and 
drawing  scales  by  means  of  triangular  brush  marks  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  body.  When  the  figure  is  complete  and 
dry,  the  drawing  medium  should  be  thinned  down  some- 
what, and  the  brush  strokes  that  form  the  background 
should  be  drawn  in  without  too  much  color  in  the  brush, 
and  care  taken  that  their  curves  follow  and  radiate  from  the 
general  curvature  of  the  body.  When  all  is  dry,  carefully 
erase  the  guide  lines. 

Figs.  13  and  14  are  additional  devices  frequently  seen  in 
heraldry,  and  are  drawn  in  precisely  the  same  manner,  so  far 
as  the  brush  work  is  concerned,  as  the  two  previous  ones. 
Fig.  13  represents  a  dolphin,  engraved  upon  a  shield.  This 
device  is  used  in  various  forms  as  a  part  of  a  coat  of  arms  of 
many  foreign  families,  particularly  the  ancient  royal  families 
of  France.  The  shield  on  which  it  is  drawn  is  2£  inches 
wide  at  the  top  and  2|-  inches  deep  to  the  bottom.  The 
distance  from  the  outline  of  the  dolphin  to  the  nearest  point 
in  the  outline  of  the  shield  at  the  top  and  sides  is  £  inch, 
while  the  extreme  height  of  the  fish  from  top  to  bottom  is 
2  inches.  The  student  may  outline  this  figure  carefully  in 
pencil,  and  with  a  harder  pencil  strengthen  up  the  lines 
after  it  has  been  drawn  to  his  satisfaction ;  and  then,  after 
cleaning  up  the  drawing,  he  may  wash  in  the  background 
to  form  an  evert  tint  as  shown,  with  the  dolphin  device 
silhouetted  against  it  in  white. 

The  size  of  the  shield  in  Fig.  14-  is  the  same  as  that  in 
Fig.  13.  The  figure  here  is  a  combination  of  the  lion's 
body  with  the  eagle's  head,  claws,  and  wings,  and  is  usually 
known  as  a  griffin.  Another  device  in  heraldry  known  as 
the  panther  is  almost  precisely  the  same  as  the  griffin,  but 
without  the  wings.  A  vertical  line  through  the  center  of 
the  shield  will  pass  through  the  left  foot  and  the  center 


?0  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

of  the  top  of  the  head  of  this  figure,  while  a  line  through 
the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  shield  drawn  to  the  left 
at  an  angle  of  45°  will  give  the  direction  of  the  upper  slant 
of  the  wing,  and  pass  through  the  knee  and  above,  and 
parallel  to,  the  lower  extended  fore  leg  and  claw.  A  similar 
line  drawn  through  the  upper  left-hand  corner  toward  the 
right,  at  an  angle  of  45°,  will  mark  the  direction  of  the 
upper  fore  leg  and  claw,  and  also  the  direction  of  the  slant 
of  the  upper  portion  of  the  left  hind  leg.  These  points 
located,  the  student  should  have  no  difficulty  in  outlining  the 
general  figure  in  pencil,  after  which  he  may  erase  the  guide 
lines  and  carefully  wash  it  in  with  his  brush,  making  it  in  sil- 
houette on  a  white  shield — the  reverse  of  the  one  above.  The 
shield  may  be  outlined  with  a  pen,  using  ink  in  full  strength. 

There  are  many  variations  of  all  these  animals  and  imag- 
inary figures  that  combine  the  distinguishing  characteristics 
of  beasts,  birds,  and  fishes;  they  all  enter  largely  into  the 
devices  used  in  heraldry,  though  their  more  frequent  mission 
in  nineteenth-century  design  has  been  to  suggest  subjects  for 
ornament  in  stone,  plaster,  and  iron,  and  even  to  suggest 
devices  for  the  ornamentation  of  burnt-leather  work  and 
ornamental  advertising.  Their  original  purpose  in  her- 
aldry they  have  outlived  so  far  as  origin  of  design  is  con- 
cerned, each  particular  heraldic  device  or  coat  of  arms 
requiring  a  particular  form  of  beast  or  imaginary  figure 
that  is  unalterable  without  varying  the  characteristics  of 
its  own  coat  of  arms. 

After  finishing  this  plate  as  above  described,  the  student 
will  carefully  erase  the  construction  lines,  draw  in  the  border 
line  in  ink  as  before,  carefully  print  the  title  at  the  top  of 
the  plate,  and  then  insert  his  name,  date,  and  class  letter 
and  number  in  their  usual  locations  below. 


DRAWIXG    PLATE,    TITLE:    APPLIED    DESIGN. 

2O.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  plate  to  give  the  student  a 
few  examples  from  actual  designs,  both  classic  and  modern, 
wherein  the  principles  taught  on  the  previous  plates  are 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  71 

distinctly  applied ;  and  in  studying  this  work  it  will  be  to  his 
advantage,  not  only  to  study  the  application  of  the  different 
points  of  design,  as  they  are  set  forth  in  the  instructions  for 
this  drawing,  but  to  study  similar  applications  in  other 
designs,  whether  he  finds  them  in  printed  books,  in  woven 
cloths  or  carpets,  or  on  painted  vases  or  chinaware. 

In  Fig.  1,  we  have  a  border  showing  the  application  of  a 
vine,  and  although  on  this  plate  it  is  executed  as  a  silhouette 
design,  its  application  for  inlaid  woodwork,  for  embroidery 
work,  or  the  theme  of  its  design  for  the  border  of  any  printed 
program  or  advertising  work,  is  very  apparent.  This  style 
of  ornament  is  easily  executed,  and  for  certain  classes  of 
printed  work  is  particularly  desirable,  because,  owing  to  the 
absence  of  any  fine  lines,  it  is  subject  to  extensive  duplica- 
tion in  the  printing  process  without  injury  to  the  original 
plate.  The  design  may  also  be  executed  with  the  white 
figure  on  a  dark  ground,  and  it  is  always  left  to  the  design- 
er's judgment  which  style  of  treatment  would  be  the  more 
satisfactory.  All  the  figures  on  this  plate  are  in  black  and 
white,  and  the  student  in  blacking  them  in  will  use  his  brush 
well  charged  with  the  waterproof  drawing  ink,  using  it  full 
strength,  and  without  diluting  or  attempting  to  spread  it 
thinly,  as  on  the  previous  plate. 

To  draw  Fig.  1,  the  student  will  draw  parallel  with  the  left 
border  line,  and  1£  inches  from  it,  a  vertical  line  from  the 
top  to  the  bottom  of  his  plate ;  parallel  to  the  top  and  bot- 
tom border  lines  he  will  draw  horizontal  lines  about  6  inches 
in  length  and  1^-  inches  from  them. 

Omitting  for  the  present  the  square  formed  in  the  corners 
by  the  intersection  of  these  lines,  the  student  will  draw 
horizontal  lines  through  the  vertical  panel  formed  on  the 
left  of  his  plate,  so  as  to  divide  that  panel  into  four  equal 
parts,  these  lines  being  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  on  the 
drawing  plate.  The  winding  of  the  stem  of  the  morning- 
glory  vine  can  then  be  readily  traced,  and  if  the  subdivisions 
so  marked  are  repeated  horizontally  on  the  top  and  bottom 
of  the  plate,  the  design  may  be  repeated  within  their  limits, 
and  the  curved  line  through  the  corner  square  will  connect 


72  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

the  ends  of  the  stems  where,  with  the  corner  leaves  drawn 
in  as  shown,  the  border  repeats  itself  continuously. 

No  directions  are  necessary  here  for  the  drawing-  of  the 
convolvulus  or  its  leaf;  the  outline  and  characteristics  of 
each  of  these  the  student  is  supposed  to  have  learned  in 
executing  his  third  and  fourth  drawing  plates.  His  atten- 
tion is  only  called  to  the  fact  that,  in  outlining  these  leaves 
and  flowers,  the  lines  are  arranged  somewhat  stiffly,  and, 
instead  of  curves,  angular  bends  are  expressed  in  the  leaves, 
in  order  to  make  the  design  appear  somewhat  more  conven- 
tional. Where  a  flower  laps  over  on  the  leaf  or  crosses  the 
stem,  or  where  one  stem  crosses  another,  it  is  customary 
under  these  circumstances  of  conventionalism  to  indicate  it 
by  breaking  the  stem,  leaf,  or  flower  on  each  side  of  the 
continuous  detail,  leaving  a  fine  white  line  across  the  stem 
or  flower  to  indicate  which  laps  over  the  other.  The  veins 
of  the  leaves  and  the  suggestion  of  the  heart  of  the  flower 
are  also  here  expressed  in  white.  This  white  work,  how- 
ever, is  not  left  clear  when  the  design  is  drawn,  nor  scratched 
out  afterwards,  but  after  the  design  has  been  blacked  in 
solidly  from  end  to  end,  an  ordinary  writing  pen  charged 
with  white  water-color  paint  (usually  Chinese  or  zinc  white) 
is  used  to  mark  the  veining  and  the  crossings  and  lapping 
over  of  the  details.  Chinese  white  may  be  obtained  either 
in  cake  form,  like  ordinary  water  colors,  or  in  a  pasty  form 
in  bottles.  In  the  former  case,  it  is  prepared  for  use  by 
grinding  in  a  saucer  or  on  an  ink  slab  in  the  same  manner  as 
stick  ink,  as  described  in  Geometrical  Drawing.  In  the 
latter  case,  it  is  simply  diluted  with  enough  water  to  bring 
it  to  the  proper  consistency  for  use;  occasionally  a  drop  of 
dilute  ox  gall  is  added  to  the  solution  to  make  the  white 
paint  flow  easily. 

The  term  "repeat"  in  any  form  of  design  is  used  to 
express  the  quality  of  the  design  for  continuity  by  extending 
itself  with  a  given  variety  over  a  given  surface,  and  then 
fitting  on  to  a  repetition  of  itself  again  so  as  to  form  a  cor- 
rect geometrical  continuation  of  the  pattern.  In  carpet  and 
wall  paper  the  quality  of  repeating  is  generally  termed 


§2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  73 

matching,  and  is  illustrated  when  the  edges  of  two  pieces 
are  brought  together  so  that  the  design  continues  unbroken 
from  one  of  them  to  another,  and  the  designer  of  this  char- 
acter of  goods  is  required  to  give  this  fact  his  constant 
consideration  whenever  he  is  laying  out  any  pattern. 

In  Fig.  2  is  shown  a  panel,  the  design  of  which  is  based 
on  the  growth  of  the  lily.  The  size  of  the  panel  is  2f  inches 
wide  by  7|  inches  high,  and  it  is  located  so  as  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  the  morning-glory  border  previously  drawn,  as 
shown  on  the  plate.  In  drawing  this  figure  a  center  line 
should  be  drawn  vertically  through  the  panel,  and  on  this 
center  line  the  height  of  the  panel  should  be  divided  into 
fifteen  equal  parts,  through  each  of  which  a  horizontal  line, 
is  drawn,  as  shown.  The  dividing  of  the  space  on  each  side 
of  the  center  line  into  three  equal  parts  through  which  other 
vertical  lines  are  drawn  will  reduce  the  surface  of  the  panel 
to  a  series  of  rectangles,  by  means  of  which  each  detail  of 
the  design  may  be  accurately  located.  After  the  student  has 
outlined  all  of  his  work  on  this  panel  carefully,  he  will  find 
it  an  advantage  to  ink  it  in  with  waterproof  drawing  ink; 
then,  when  he  is  washing  in  his  black  background,  he  will 
find  the  brush  less  inclined  to  run  over  the  ink  lines  and 
destroy  the  evenness  of  his  contours  than  if  he  had  nothing 
but  pencil  lines  to  guide  him.  After  the  entire  background 
is  washed  in  and  dry,  the  veining  and  suggestive  shading  of 
the  leaves  and  blossoms  may  be  put  in  with  a  fine  brush 
or  pen.  The  stamens  may  be  put  in  with  Chinese  white. 

By  comparing  this  conventionalized  design  with  the  draw- 
ing of  the  lily  on  the  third  freehand  plate,  the  student  will 
observe  a  variation.  In  the  first  place,  the  leaves  are  rather 
broader  than  on  the  previous  plate,  as  this  class  of  lily  has 
broader  leaves;  but  their  characteristic  form  is  maintained 
the  same,  and  the  blossom,  though  seen  in  two  different 
positions,  expresses  the  characteristics  of  the  lily  develop- 
ment so  clearly  that,  there  is  little  or  no  danger  of  mistak- 
ing the  design.  This  design  is  rather  too  conventional  for 
embroidery  work,  but  for  wood  inlay  or  damask  weaving  it 
is  easily  adaptable. 


;4  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §2 

In  Fig.  3  is  shown  a  design  that  is  applicable  either  to 
china  decoration,  embroidery,  or  linen  damask  work.  The 
governing  form  of  the  design  is  a  circle  with  its  center 
44-  inches  below  the  upper  border  line  of  the  plate,  and  exactly 
midway  between  the  two  side  border  lines.  The  student 
may  draw  a  circle  5  inches  in  diameter,  and  divide  it  into 
eight  equal  parts,  to  each  of  which  he  will  draw  from  the 
center  eight  radial  lines.  Then,  with  a  radius  of  2f  inches, 
he  will  strike  from  the  same  center  a  circle  that  will  form 
the  outside  of  his  ornamental  design,  while  a  circle  drawn 
from  the  same  center,  with  a  radius  of  1^  inches,  will  limit 


the  inside  of  the  design.  On  each  of  the  radial  lines  thus 
drawn  the  student  will  first  draw  the  foliated  brush  forms 
a  b,  c  </,  etc.  according  to  the  methods  practiced  on  the 
previous  drawing  plate,  except  that  the  ellipse  governing 
the  outside  limits  of  these  forms  has  its  longitudinal  axis  at 
right  angles  to  the  perpendicular  axis  of  the  figures  a  b  and 
c  d,  as  the  enlarged  detail,  Fig.  3G,  will  show.  Having  care- 
fully sketched  the  ellipses  as  shown  in  Fig.  3G,  the  student 
may  draw  the  brush  marks  that  indicate  the  leaves  on  this 
figure,  being  careful  to  extend  the  central  brush  mark  nearly 
to  the  outside  line.  He  will  then  divide  the  distance  from 
a  to  b  into  nine  equal  parts,  and  through  each  of  these  points 
of  division  draw  a  circle  with  its  center  at  o.  The  arc  from 
a  to  c  will  then  be  divided  into  nine  equal  parts,  through 


§  2  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  75 

each  of  which  radial  lines  should  be  drawn  toward  the 
center  o.  This  will  divide  the  surface  abed  into  eighty- 
one  similar  geometrical  figures,  by  means  of  which  the 
details  of  the  ornament  can  be  radially  located.  When  all  is 
carefully  drawn  in,  in  pencil,  throughout  the  entire  circum- 
ference of  the  plaque,  the  student  may  brush  in  the  design 
in  black  ink,  as  shown,  and  complete  the  figure.  The  outer 
circle  should  be  inked  in  with  the  compass,  the  other  con- 
struction lines  being  erased. 

Fig.  4  is  an  ornament  taken  from  the  ceiling  of  the  Par- 
thenon— a  Grecian  temple  at  Athens  considered  to  be  one  of 
the  finest  examples  of  Grecian  art  the  world  has  ever  seen. 
The  original  of  this  ornament  was  executed  in  gold  on  a  red 
ground — a  condition  of  coloring  impossible  to  express  here,  but 
as  a  practical  example  of  brush  work,  nothing  could  be  more 
serviceable.  To  draw  it,  locate  the  line  abc  If  inches  from 
the  border  line,  and  between  this  line  and  the  border  line 
draw  a  line  \  inch  above  and  to  the  right  of  a  be.  This  line 
and  the  border  line  will  then  together  establish  the  limits  of 
the  border  outline.  Commencing  at  the  corner  b,  lay  off  to 
the  left  and  below,  a  distance  of  £  inch.  Draw  a  vertical 
line  in  the  upper  part  and  a  horizontal  line  in  the  side  part 
of  the  border,  and  from  the  lines  just  drawn  space  off  two 
additional  lines  1^  inches  apart  in  each  direction,  to  form  the 
centers  of  the  palmettes  that  are  the  distinguishing  features 
of  the  border.  With  the  center  lines  of  these  palmettes  as 
the  upper  part  of  the  longitudinal  axis,  draw  ellipses  whose 
transverse  axes  are  \  inch  below  the  top  of  the  palmette,  and 
1|  inches  in  length,  and  within  these  ellipses  so  drawn  con- 
struct the  brush  forms  of  the  border  according  to  directions 
given  in  connection  with  the  previous  plate.  Having  done 
this,  draw  f  inch  inside  of,  and  parallel  to,  abc,  the  inner 
line  of  the  border,  and  \  inch  within  this  and  parallel  to  it, 
draw  two  lines  that  shall  form  the  upper  and  right  side  of  a 
square  that  will  be  3f  inches  on  each  side.  Divide  this 
square  vertically  and  horizontally,  by  means  of  perpendicular 
and  horizontal  lines,  into  three  equal  parts,  trms  converting  it 
into  nine  smaller  squares  within  each  of  which  distinguishing 


7G 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


§  2 


characteristics  of  the  panel  ornament  are  drawn.  In  each 
of  the  four  squares  in  the  center  of  each  side  of  the  main 
square,  circles  may  be  drawn  with  the  compasses  11  inches 
in  diameter,  or  as  near  thereto  as  will  make  them  tan- 


FIG.  3,7. 


gent  to  the  lines  of  the  squares.  The  palmette  figures  in 
the  corner  squares  may  then  be  drawn  similar  to  those  in 
the  border,  the  other  details  being  too  apparent  to  require 
description. 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


77 


In  drawing  the  ornament  of  Fig.  4,  which  is  commonly 
known  as  the  Greek  honeysuckle  ornament,  it  is  more  than 
evident  that  its  conventionalized  condition  is  due  as  much 
to  the  limitations  of  brush  stroke  rendering  as  to  an  accurate 
portrayal  of  the  details  of  the  flower  or  plant.  The  little 
scrolls  and  connecting  lines  are  suggestive  of  the  tendrils  of 
the  honeysuckle,  while  the  single  brush  strokes  with  their 
rounded  ends  tapering  off  to  the  finishing  are  strongly  sug- 
gestive of  the  unbroken  bud  as  seen  in  the  honeysuckle 
blossom.  Fig.  37  shows  a  spray  of  the  honeysuckle  vine 
and  its  blossoms  in  its  natural  growth.  In  the  upper  part 
of  this  figure  there  is  a  cluster  of  the  unbroken  buds,  and 
their  resemblance  in  outline  to  the  plain  brush  stroke  of 
Fig.  4  of  the  drawing  plate  is 
readily  apparent.  Fig.  38  shows 
a  conventional  rendering  of  the 
honeysuckle,  the  blownbudsbeing 
arranged  geometrically  around  the 
bottom,  and  the  unbroken  ones 
above,  each  over  the  blown  flower 
beneath.  There  is  no  attempt  in 
the  Greek  ornament  to  imitate 
directly  any  portion  of  the  honey- 
suckle vine  or  flower;  the  details 
of  the  flower  are  readily  made  use 
of  to  form  a  new  and  original  ornament  resembling  directly 
nothing,  but  at  the  same  time  dependent  entirely  on  a  natu- 
ral form  of  growth.  Having  completed  this  figure,  the  con- 
struction lines  may  be  erased,  leaving  only  the  line  a  be  and 
the  one  next  within  it,  to  be  inked  in  with  the  ruling  pen. 

In  Fig.  39  is  shown  the  acanthus  leaf,  according  to  the 
Roman  conventional  design,  as  it  appears  in  carved  stone  or 
marble;  each  lobe  of  the  leaf  is  carefully  rounded  on  the 
end,  and  the  under  surface  is  hollow;  then,  where  the  leaf 
turns  over  at  the  top,  and  the  back  is  shown,  each  lobe 
appears  with  its  convex  side  forward.  Where  the  main  divi- 
sions of  the  leaf  curl  and  lap  over  each  other,  deep  hollow 
grooves  are  cut  that  show  in  the  reproduction  as  heavy  black 


FIG.  38. 


78 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


lines.  Observe  that  deep  undercut  portions  of  the  leaf  cause 
a  black  shadow  and  impress  the  mind  generally  as  with  total 
absence  of  detail.  Now,  when  it  became  necessary  to  repro- 
duce this  carved  form  of  acan- 
thus by  simple  brush  strokes, 
the  Roman  artist  made  a  stroke 
for  each  lobe  of  the  leaf  and 
left  a  blank  space  to  represent 
each  spot  where  there  was 
absence  of  detail — owing  to 
deep  shadow  —  rendering  his 
brush-work  acanthus  leaf  as  it 
appears  in  Fig.  5  of  the  draw- 
ing plate. 

In  drawing  this  figure,  the 
student  should  observe  Fig.  40, 
and  compare  each  stroke  carefully  with  the  carved  ornament 
illustrated  in  Fig.  39.  Before  commencing  the  figure  itself, 
he  should,  on  the  plate,  construct  a  semiellipse  as  its  outline, 
whose  minor  axis  shall  be  3f  inches,  and  half  of  wrhose  major 
axis  shall  be  5  inches,  and  on  a 
line  directly  under  the  center 
of  Fig.  3.  This  semiellipse  is 
shown  dotted  around  the  figure 
on  the  drawing  plate.  The  cen- 
tral rib  of  the  leaf,  wrhich  is 
%  inch  wide  at  a,  should  then 
bj  sketched  in  pencil,  tapering 
off  so  that  it  would  reach  to  a 
point  at  the  top  of  the  ellipse  $, 
if  it  were  continued  that  far. 
The  curved  line  at  the  top  of 
the  leaf  dec  is  then  drawn,  and 
may  be  the  arc  of  a  circle 
whose  radius  is  2'-  inches  and  whose  center  is  \\  inches 
above  b.  Then  draw  the  first  brush  stroke  under  c, 
,  inches  in  length.  This  will  also  regulate  the  length  "of 
the  middle  rib  a.  The  points/and  £- should  then  be  located 


FlG.  40. 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


79 


3£  and  If  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  leaf,  respectively. 
The  lobes  may  then  be  sketched  in  with  a  pencil,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  40  at  a,  only  roughly,  however,  and  the  conventional- 
ized form  finished  with  single  brush  strokes  as  shown  at  b, 
each  one  representing  a  lobe  existing  in  the  carved  leaf,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  39. 

Fig.  6  of  the  drawing  plate  shows  a  square  pattern  for  a 
repeating  design  suitable  for  wall  paper,  silk,  or  other  fabric, 


and  involving  the  characteristics  of  the  rose,  studied  in  con- 
nection with  the  Drawing  Plate,  title,  Flowers  and  Conven- 
tionalized Leaves.  In  all  designs  for  repeating  patterns, 
the  designer  usually  uses  a  paper  that  has  been  ruled  by 
machinery  into  a  number  of  squares,  varying  in  size  from 
TV  to  £  inch.  By  means  of  these  squares  he  is  able  to  locate 
certain  details  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  his  paper,  so  that 
the  design  will  repeat  as  previously  explained.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  the  student  should  use  such  paper  in  drawing 


80 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


this  figure,  but  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  he  should  draw 
it  separately  and  completely  on  another  sheet  before  he 
executes  it  on  his  drawing  plate.  In  doing  this,  it  will  be 
necessary  for  him  to  understand  a  practical  method  of  get- 
ting the  repeat,  and  though  this  does  not  form  a  part  of  this 
branch  of  drawing,  it  will  be  here  explained  for  this  problem 
only,  in  order  that  he  may  better  grasp  the  subject. 

On  a  separate  piece  of  paper,  the   student  will  lay  out  a 


d  f 

FIG.  42. 


rectangle  5£  in.  x  G|  in. ;  in  this  he  will  draw  a  spray  of  rose 
leaves  and  a  blossom,  with  the  outline  of  the  running  vine 
about  as  shown  in  Fig.  41.  It  makes  no  difference  for  this 
purpose  how  well  these  leaves  are  drawn,  or  how  roughly 
they  may  be  sketched,  as  long  as  their  general  location  and 
proportion  to  the  paper  is  about  as  shown.  The  student 
will  then  cut  the  paper  in  two  with  a  pair  of  scissors  on  the 
line  a  b,  and  arrange  the  two  parts  so  that  the  edges  c  d  and 
r/are  next  to  each  other.  He  will  then  again  pin  the  paper 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


81 


to  his  drawing  board,  and  it  will  appear  as  in  Fig.  42.  It 
will  be  well  for  him  now  to  draw  two  more  sprays  of  roses, 
or  partial  sprays,  to  fill  up  the  blank  space  in  the  center  of 
the  sheet,  somewhat  as  shown  in  Fig.  43,  and  having  done 
so  he  will  cut  Fig.  43  through  on  the  line  gh  and  arrange 
the  pieces,  with  the  lines  a  a'  and  bb'  together  in  the  middle, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  44.  This  will  give  him  an  idea  of  the 
amount  of  surface  he  has  covered  with  his  design ;  it  will 


show  him  where  more  detail  is  required  in  order  to  evenly 
fill  the  space,  and  that  detail  he  can  sketch  in,  but  wherever 
it  crosses  either  one  of  the  center  lines  in  Fig.  44,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  rearrange  the  pieces  in  order  to  get  its  relative 
position  in  the  other  arrangements.  Having  accomplished 
all  this  and  sketched  the  extra  details  in,  as  shown  in  Fig.  45, 
he  can  rearrange  the  four  pieces  to  their  original  positions 
in  Fig.  41,  and  make  a  tracing  of  the  drawing,  which  will 
now  be  a  completed  pattern  as  shown  in  Fig.  46.  Several 


82  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

tracings  of  this  figure  on  the  same  sheet  side  by  side,  one 
above  the  other,  will  make  a  repeating  pattern  that  can  be 
spread  out,  above  or  below,  to  the  right  or  left,  unlimitedly, 
as  one  side  of  the  drawing  fits  exactly  on  the  other,  and  all 
details  will  be  continuous.  This  is  but  one  of  several 
methods  of  accomplishing  this  same  purpose,  and  the  same 
spray  of  roses  with  which  we  started  in  Fig.  41  would  pro- 
duce different  results  by  varying  the  methods. 


FIG.  44. 


For  instance,  if  instead  of  drawing  our  design  in  a  rect- 
angle, we  should  draw  it  in  a  parallelogram  whose  length, 
was  equal  to  1^  times  the  breadth,  or  if  we  draw  it  within  a 
triangle  of  any  dimensions,  or  within  a  rhomboid,  or  within 
any  other  figure  that  is  capable  of  unlimited  repetition,  we 
would  find  the  results  obtained  to  be  as  different  as  were  the 
figures    themselves,    the   running   pattern    taking   different 
Now,    after  the   student   has,   on   his   separate 
i- signed  Fig.  0  of  the  drawing  plate  as  shown,  traced 


FREEHAND  DRAWING. 


83 


it  and  tested  it  to  be  satisfied  that  there  is  no  error  in  the 
repeat  of  his  pattern,  he  may  redraw  the  result  of  his  tracing 
on  his  drawing  plate,  being  careful  that  the  parts  are  accu- 
rately reproduced.  He  may  outline  the  figures  with  water- 
proof ink  and  black  in  the  background  with  his  brush  to 
produce  the  silhouette  effect  shown  in  the  figure  (the  thorns 
may  then  be  indicated  with  Chinese  white) ;  after  which  he 
will  place  the  title  at  the  top  of  the  plate,  and  his  name, 


FIG.  45. 

date,  and  class  letter  and  number  at  the  bottom,  below  Figs.  1 
and  G,  but  he  may  omit  any  border  line  entirely. 

This  completes  this  course  of  instruction  in  freehand  draw- 
ing. The  principles  of  freehand  drawing  set  forth  in  this 
work  simply  require  practice  to  make  an  expert  draftsman. 
No  person  can  acquire  any  accomplishment  without  diligent 
and  persistent  work,  and  the  difference  between  a  medium 
and  a  good  designer  is  seldom  more  than  a  question  of 
practice.  After  having  finished  this  work,  even  though  the 


84  FREEHAND  DRAWING.  §  2 

student's  drawing  plates  have  been  correct  and  marked 
satisfactorily,  it  will  be  an  advantage  to  him  to  deliberately 
go  over  the  entire  course  again  for  his  own  satisfaction,  to 
practice  more  on  details  that  proved  difficult  for  him  in  the 
beginning,  and  to  make  sketches  of  objects  of  various  kinds 
whenever  the  opportunity  presents  itself,  and  particularly 
of  those  objects  that  are  illustrated  in  the  last  six  drawing 


FIG.  46. 


plates.  If  he  starts  at  the  beginning,  or  near  the  beginning, 
and  goes  through  his  instruction  again,  he  will  be  surprised 
and  encouraged  at  the  facility  he  has  acquired  during  his 
course  of  study,  and  it  is  wise  for  him  to  thus  encourage 
himself  in  order  that  he  may  have  the  patience  to  continue 
practicing,  and  thus  always  be  making  progress.  The  student 
is  now  supposed  to  know  how  to  draw  and  he  is  ready  to 
take  the  first  step  in  the  study  of  design. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 

(PART  1.) 


INTRODUCTION. 

1.  Meaning  of  "Ornament." — The  term  ornament  in 
its  more  limited  sense  is  applied  to  such  elements  of  decora- 
tion as  are  adapted  or  derived  from  natural  forms.     These 
differ  from  what  we  consider  the  geometrical  elements,  inas- 
much as  they  are  organic,  and  suggestive  of  life  and  growth. 
They  depend  for  their  expression  on  the  general  arrange- 
ment of   their  branches,   leaves,   and   blossoms,   while  the 
geometrical  elements  owe  their  expression  entirely  to  their 
geometrical  form  and  arrangement  relative  to  one  another. 
When  simply  drawn  on  paper  and  in  no  way  applied  to  any 
object,  or  used  for  any  purpose  other  than  the  expression  of 
itself,  one  of  these  elements  of  decoration  may  be  considered 
simply  as  an  ornament.      It  does  not  become  an  element 
of  decoration  until  it  is  applied  to  something,  and  in  the 
abstract,  the  term  ornament  should  not  be  confused  with  the 
term  decoration,  which  is  distinctly  applied  ornament. 

2.  Meaning  of  "  Decoration." — The  term  decoration 
signifies  the  application,  or  the  result  of  the  application,  of 
ornament   to   objects   or  surfaces.     It   does   not  mean   the 
simple  "sticking  on  "  of  an  ornament  to  a  surface,  but  con- 
veys the  idea  of  the  adaptation  of  an  ornamental  form  to 
suit  the  requirements  of  its  position  and  the  purpose  of  the 
object  to  which  it  is  applied. 

8  3 

For  notice  of  the  copyright,  see  page  immediately  following  the  title  page. 


2  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

The  elements  of  decoration  consist  of  geometrical  lines, 
natural  foliage,  artificial  objects,  animals,  and  the  human 
figure.  All  these  may  be  cc  .isidered  as  ingredients  or  com- 
ponents that  may  be  mixed  and  applied  in  various  propor- 
tions according  to  certain  standard  and  acknowledged  rules 
termed  principles.  The  rule  by  which  any  one  mixture  is 
accomplished  determines  the  style  or  class  of  the  design. 

\\.  Principles  of  Decoration. — The  principles  of 
decoration,  considered  separately  and  distinctly  from  the 
elements  that  are  used  to  make  up  the  design,  are  dependent 
on,  and  in  harmony  with,  the  rules  of  architectural  propor- 
tion. This  may  be  illustrated  by  considering  the  subdivision 
of  a  wall  surface  into  three  horizontal  bands — the  dado,  the 
ivall,  and  the  frieze— in  the  proportion  of  the  pedestal, 
column,  and  entablature  of  an  architectural  order.  True, 
there  are  styles  of  design  where  these  proportions  are  at 
variance  with  any  architectural  order;  but,  with  few  excep- 
tions, these  will  be  found  to  exist  in  styles  or  periods  of 
historic  art  wherein  the  orders  of  classic  architecture  were 
unknown  or  misunderstood,  as  will  be  considered  hereafter. 
This  general  division  of  a  wall  surface,  however,  may  exist 
by  the  simple  placing  of  horizontal  lines  to  mark  the 
heights,  this  subdivision  being  purely  geometrical.  The 
decoration  may  be  extended  by  applying  to  the  subdivisions 
such  natural  foliage  as  leaves  and  running  vines;  artificial 
objects,  such  as  the  hieroglyphics  of  the  Egyptians;  or 
animals,  and  the  human  figure,  as  seen  in  the  Gothic  and 
Renaissance  work;  or  a  combination  of  these  forms.  In 
each  case,  however,  the  main  subdivisions  are  in  accordance 
with  general  rules;  and  the  surface  covering,  though  gov- 
erned by  less  restrictive  rules,  is,  at  the  same  time,  sub- 
servient to  a  definite  proportion  of  ornamented  to  plain 
surface,  different  under  different  circumstances. 

1.     "FJcmeiits  «f  Decoration. — Whatever  the  theme  of 

.•oration — whether  it  be  the  expression  of  the  invention  of 

a  new  idea,  or  only  the  arbitrary  adoption  of  some  familiar 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  3 

form — two  elementary  conditions  will  always  be  found  to 
exist:  first,  a  decoration  produced  by  an  arrangement  and 
joining  of  dots  and  lines,  or  by  a  combination  of  geometrical 
figures  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  rhythm,  regulation, 
and  symmetry;  and  second,  a  decorative  effect  arising  from 
the  attempt  to  represent  objects  from  the  external  world. 

The  elements  nearest  at  hand  for  imitation  are  found  in 
organic  nature  with  its  plants,  animals,  and  the  human  form ; 
but  inorganic  nature  also  furnishes  models,  as  in  the  forms 
of  crystallization,  such  as  snowflakes,  and  various  phenom- 
ena, as  clouds,  lightning,  waves,  etc. ;  besides  which  there 
are  rich  resources  open  in  artificial  objects  fashioned  by 
man  himself,  as  vases  and  utensils  of  daily  use. 

5.  Combination  of  Elements. — It  may  now  be  more 
readily  understood  how  all  kinds  of  elements  may  be  com- 
bined.    Geometrical  may  be  united  with  natural  forms,  and 
details  and  ideas  suggested  by  natural  forms  may  be  com- 
bined with  creatures  of  the   human   imagination   to  form 
eccentricities  that  do  not  really  exist  in  nature,  but  that  man 
has  always  delighted  in  adopting  as  representative  of  some 
higher  or  supernatural  power.     Illustrative  of  these,  we  have 
the  sphinx,   so   identified  with    Egyptian  art;   the  centaur 
and  the  mermaid  in  classic  art;  and  the  animal  bodies  with 
human  heads,  and  the  combination  of  beasts  or  fishes  with  the 
wings  of  birds,  or  with  plant  life  and  foliated  terminations, 
prevalent  in  many  details  of  Gothic  and  Renaissance  art. 

6.  Symbolic  Devices. — In  heraldry  and  armorial  bear- 
ings, with  which  the  decorations  of  the  Middle  Ages  and 
following  centuries  are  replete,  there  are  a  number  of  devices 
with  definite  names  that  depend  entirely  on  the  combination 
of  different  characteristics,  borrowed  from  different  classes 
of  animals,  in  order  to  combine  in  one  figure  the  attributes 
of  several  natural  beasts.     For  instance,  we  have  the  dragon, 
with  the  body  of  a  serpent  and  the  head  of  a  carnivorous 
bird,  and  the  wings  of  a  bat,  combining  in  the  one  animal 
the   stealth   and   treachery  of   the   snake,   the  cruelty  and 


4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §.3 

passion  of  the  vulture,  and  the  uncanny  and  silent  secrecy 
associated  with  the  nocturnal  habits  of  the  bat. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  have  a  variation  of  the  form  or 
characteristics  of  an  individual  animal,  in  order  to  emphasize 
those  characteristics  for  the  purpose  represented.  In  many 
of  the  armorial  devices  of  Great  Britain  is  found  a  represen- 
tation of  a  lion — never  in  the  true  form  of  the  lion,  as  we  are 
in  the  habit  of  thinking  of  him  in  the  jungle,  but  a  lion 
with  a  long  attenuated  body,  generally  with  one  or  both  fore 
paws  raised  from  the  ground,  and  always  with  his  mouth 
open  and  protruding  tongue  and  teeth.  The  lion  is  indica- 
tive of  power  and  strength,  and,  consequently,  of  sover- 
eignty. The  attenuation  of  his  body  increases  the  feeling 
of  litheness  associated  with  animals  of  the  cat  tribe,  while 
the  expression  given  his  face  and  forefeet  is  indicative  of 
firmness,  and  power  for  aggressiveness,  offensiveness,  or 
defensiveness,  as  the  case  may  require. 

7.  Iiifltieiice  of  Architecture. — Decoration  is  applied 
art,  and  the  forms  used  in  decoration  become  varied  accord- 
ing to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  used.  Decoration,  as 
applied  to  architecture,  consists  of  the  ornamentation  of  the 
structural  features  of  a  building — of  the  variation  in  color, 
or  proportion  of  different  surfaces  that  are  adjacent,  and  of 
the  introduction  of  familiar  symbols,  or  objects,  to  convey  a 
definite  historical  or  religious  idea. 

To  a  certain  extent,  all  decoration  partakes  of  the  same 
characteristics  as  architectural  decoration.  Wall  decoration 
is  architectural,  and  consists  of  the  variation  in  color  or 
proportion  of  adjacent  surfaces,  or  of  the  same  surfaces 
divided.  The  decoration  of  silks  and  tapestries,  either  in 
the  weaving  or  printing,  is  a  variation  of  surface  that  must 
be  further  considered  in  its  architectural  relation,  when  they 
are  hung  on  the  walls,  over  the  doors,  or  around  the  windows, 
and  seen,  not  as  plain  surfaces,  but  in  folds.  The  treatment 
of  furniture  is  an  architectural  decoration,  both  in  the  orna- 
mentation of  its  structural  features  and  in  the  application  of 
s  to  portions  of  its  surface.  In  fact,  in  all  periods  of 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  5 

art,  it  will  be  found  that  any  attempt  at  ornamentation  is 
governed  directly  or  indirectly  by  the  prevailing  tastes  in 
architecture  and  the  sister  arts. 

8.  Conditions    Influencing    Architecture. — Though 
ornament  and  architecture  have  been  steadily  progressive 
from  the  days  of  earliest  Egypt  to  the  close  of  the  nine- 
teenth  century,    there  is  little   resemblance   between    the 
characteristic  ornament  or  architecture  of  any  two  periods, 
except  where  there  has  been  a  deliberate  revival  of  a  certain 
style  of  art.     Where  the  artists  of  a  nation  or  locality  have 
been  left  to  their  own  devices  and  originality,  they  have 
produced  a  style  of  ornament  suitable  to  their  purpose,  their 
period,  and   their  relations,   that  is  in  no  way  connected 
or  suited  to  other  surrounding  conditions.     Although  the 
influences  that  have  affected  the  style  and  character  of  the 
ornament  of  different  periods  are  many,  the  religious  and 
geographical  influences  are  probably  the  strongest.     Political 
influences   determine,  to  a  certain   extent,   the   character, 
according   to  the  government  and  relations  of  the  people, 
and  also  the  profusion  and  elaboration,   and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  the  quality  of  execution,  of  ornament;  for  the  richer 
a  nation  becomes,  the  more  she  expends  on  her  monuments 
of  public  utility  and  beauty,  and  the   more  elaborate  her 
citizens  become  in  the  taste  and  decoration  of  their  house- 
holds.    In  fact,  we  find  no  art  progress  in  any  country  until 
it  begins  to  show  signs  of  amassing  wealth. 

9.  Influence  of  Religion. — -The  effect  of   religion  in 
ornament   can   be   traced   through   all   periods,    and    those 
nations  with  whom  religious  belief  was  more  closely  inter- 
mingled  with   the  civic  and  domestic   duties   of   the  day, 
expressed  in  every  detail  of  their  ornament  some  tribute  to 
a  superior  being.     During  the  laxity  of  morals  and  general 
religious  fervor  toward  the  close  of  the  Renaissance  period, 
we  find  few  religious  forms  woven  in  the  fabric  of  any  class 
of  ornament,  except  the  pagan  forms  that  were  borrowed  in 
ignorance  from  an  antique  religion  and  an  ancient  art. 


6  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

This  free  use  of  symbolic  forms,  both  ancient  and  modern, 
gives  us  an  unlimited  field  for  combinations  in  ornamental 
design,  which,  though  practiced  through  fifty  centuries,  has 
not  exhausted  the  possibilities  for  originality. 

10.  Decorative   Art. — All  decoration   and   decorative 
art,  whether  carved,  painted,  or  modeled,  is  the  expression 
of  the  wants,  facilities,  and  sentiments  of  the  age  in  which 
it  is  created.     All  products  of  decorative  art  should  possess 
fitness,  proportion,  and  harmony  of  both  form  and  color,  in 
order  that  the  result  may  express  what  we  term  repose ;  and 
beauty  results  from  that  repose  that  the  mind  feels  when 
the  eye,  the  intellect,  and  the  affections  are  satisfied,  and 
free  from  any  sense  of  want.     As  in  architecture,  construc- 
tion may  be   decorated,    but   uuder   no  circumstances   can 
decoration  be  constructed.     Decoration  must  always  form  a 
part  of  the  purpose  or  object  with  which  it  is  associated. 

It  is  tiseless  to  try  to  deceive  the  eye  and  intellect  by 
carving  a  natural  vine  on  a  stone  tablet.  No  right-minded 
person  will  ever  take  the  imitation  for  the  real  vine,  and 
the  highest  tribute  that  can  be  paid  to  it  is  that  the  carver 
was  skilled  with  his  chisel  and  hammer,  and  the  designer 
had  failed  to  understand  and  appreciate  his  material.  If 
the  vine  is  to  be  a  stone  vine,  let  it  be  reduced  to  a  form 
that  is  suitable  in  stone;  if  it  is  to  be  a  woven  vine  in  a 
fabric,  let  its  form  be  reduced  to  the  limitations  of  results 
obtainable  from  the  loom;  if  it  is  a  vine  to  be  painted  on  a 
wall  surface,  let  it  be  a  painted  representation  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  a  certain  vegetable  growth,  and  not  a  picture 
or  portrait  of  an  object  that  if  real  would  be  highly  out  of 
place  where  represented. 

11.  Conventionalism. — This  proper  representation  of 
a  familiar  form  according  to  the  position  it  is  to  occupy,  or 
the  material  in  which  it  is  to  be  executed,  is  called  conven- 
tionalism, and  is  the  first  detail  of  applied  art  that  the 
designer  must  learn  to  comprehend.      An  old  axiom  states, 

'That  which  is  beautiful  must  be  true,"  and  we  may  add 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  7 

to  it  conversely,  ' '  That  which  is  true  must  be  beautiful, " 
and  on  this  axiom  depends  all  the  beauty  of  ornament  in 
architecture,  decoration,  and  the  allied  arts. 

Ornamental  design  is  not  portrait  painting — it  is  not  the 
faithful  portrayal  of  the  details  of  nature  for  purely  pictorial 
purposes.  The  skill  of  the  artist  in  this  branch  of  art  is 
applied  to  making  something  of  simple  utility  an  object  of 
beauty;  whereas,  the  portraitist  is  engaged  in  rendering  on 
canvas,  or  other  surface,  an  absolute  portrait  of  the  subject 
before  him. 

12.  Consistency  In  Designing. — The   decorative   de- 
signer must  have  in  mind  the  construction  or  fabrication  of 
a  useful  article,  with  the  value  and  utility  of  which  he  com- 
bines his  art.     The  figure  portraitist,  landscape  portraitist, 
or  floral   portraitist,   if  we  may  so  distinguish  them,   has 
before  him  a  subject  that  he  intends  to  translate  in  paint  to 
a  surface  that  shall  have  nothing  associated  with  it  in  the 
mind  but  the  figure,  the  country,  or  the  flowers  it   repre- 
sents.    If  the  decorative  designer  takes  the  same  subject, 
he  does  not  represent  it  with  the  same  fidelity,  because  it  is 
applied  to  a  utensil,  and  the  object  of  the  utensil  must  not 
be  lost  sight  of;  and  if  he  decorates  the  surface  of  a  utensil 
or  dress  material  with  a  design  that  claims  to  be  an  absolute 
portrayal  of  the  flower  or  other  device  itself,  he  states  in  his 
decoration  that  this  is  nothing  but  the  representation  of  a 
flower  and  he  draws  the  mind  away  from  the  fact  that  it 
really  is  a  utensil;  this  is  not  true,  and,  according  to  the 
foregoing  axiom,  the  result  cannot  be  beautiful. 

13.  If,  in  the  weaving  of  a  carpet,  or  other  floor  cover- 
ing, the  designer  attempts  to  portray  natural  bunches  of 
roses  and  rose  leaves,  he  is  suggesting  to  the  observer  that 
this  is  a  picture  or  portrait  of  a  bunch  of  roses,  executed 
entirely  to  please  the  senses  as  a  portrayal  of  the  flowers 
themselves,  which  is  not  true;  for,  if  it  were,  we  should 
hang  it  near  the  level  of  the  eye,  separating  it  from   any 
sense  of  utility,  other  than  the  conveying  of  a  feeling  of 


8  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

satisfaction  and  delight  to  the  affections  and  to  the  intellect; 
whereas,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  a  floor  covering-  decorated 
with  an  out-of-place  design, 

14.  General  Rules. — In  the  decoration  of  a  surface, 
the  general  form  is  first  cared  for  and  subdivided  or  orna- 
mented by  general  lines;  the  interstices  may  then  be  filled 
with  ornament  and  may  themselves  again  be  divided  and 
fully  enriched  for  closer  observation.  But  all  ornament,  no 
matter  how  minutely  carried  out,  should  be  based  on  a 
geometrical  system  of  construction,  as  a  true  proportion  will 
be  found  to  exist  between  all  members  so  based. 

In  all  surface  decoration,  a  rule  to  be  observed  is  that  all 
lines  should  be  traced  back  to  their  branchings  from  a  general 
parent  stem,  so  that  each  detail  of  the  ornament,  no  matter 
how  distant,  can  be  traced  back  through  its  branch  to  the 
root.  This  makes  the  design  rational,  but  the  connection 
with  the  parent  stem  and  root  must  not  be  so  marked  as  to 
dominate  the  spirit  of  the  design.  Another  rule  requires 
that  all  junctions  of  curved  lines  with  other  curved  lines,  or 
of  curved  lines  with  straight  lines,  should  be  so  made  that 
they  are  tangent  to  each  other  at -the  point  of  junction,  if 
they  are  intended  to  express  parts  of  the  same  design.  And 
a  third  rule  says  that  flowers  and  other  natural  objects 
should  not  be  used  as  ornaments  in  their  natural  forms,  but 
should  be  conventionalized  or  reduced  to  geometrical  princi- 
ples that  convey  the  idea  of  their  representation  without 
purporting  to  be  a  likeness  of  the  original,  for  the  reasons 
heretofore  set  forth. 

1  5.  Color  may  be  used  to  assist  in  the  development  of  a 
form  or  idea,  or  to  distinguish  objects  or  parts  of  objects, 
one  from  another;  or  color  may  be  used  to  assist  light  and 
shade,  helping  undulations  of  light  and  form  by  the  proper 
distribution  of  several  different  tints.  Color  should  never 
be  used,  however,  where  the  exigencies  of  the  case  do  not 
positively  require  it.  Every  design  should  depend  for  its 
intrinsic  beauty  on  its  form  and  its  proportion,  and  these 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  9 

may  be  enhanced  by  combinations  and  relations  of  color; 
but  the  design  is  a  poor  one  that  depends  entirely  on  color 
for  its  attractiveness  and  beauty. 

With  this  understanding  of  the  facts,  let  us  now  consider 
what  has  been  done  by  our  predecessors  in  the  field  of  orna- 
mental design. 


ORNAMENT. 


PRIMITIVE  ORNAMENT. 

16.  Under  primitive  ornament,  we  will  consider  those 
efforts  at  ornamental  design  observable  in  the  works  of  the 
savage  tribes.     These  peoples  had  no  written  history  of  art 
from  which  to  draw  ideas,  no  theory  or  rules  of  proportion  to 
govern  their  conceptions,  and,  consequently,  the  expression 
of  art  as  exhibited  in  their  decorated  utensils  can  be  con- 
sidered pure  and  untrammeled. 

17.  Influence  of  Nature. — From  the  testimony  of  trav- 
elers in  but  partially  explored  countries,   it  would  appear 
that  there  is  no  place  on  the  face  of  the  earth  where  some 
attempt  is  not  made  at  ornamentation,  no  matter  how  crude 
a  state  of  civilization  the  people  may  be  in.     The  desire  for 
ornament  is   present   in   every   race,  and   it  develops  and 
increases  in  importance  directly  in  proportion  to  their  prog- 
ress in  civilization.     Man    appears    everywhere    impressed 
with   the  beauties  of  nature  that  surround  him,  with  the 
mysteries  governing  the  growths  and  phenomena  that  he 
cannot  understand;    and  he   seeks   to   imitate,   within    the 
limitations  of  his  power,  some  of  the  works  of  his  Creator. 
The   earliest   instinct   of  man  is   to   create  something;  no 
matter  how   powerful   he  may   be  as  a  warrior,  how  dis- 
tinguished he  may  be  as  a  tribal  leader,  or  how  wealthy  he 
may  be  in  the  possession  of  earthly  goods,  he  recognizes  his 
inability  to  explain  the  phenomena  of  nature,  and  naturally 
attributes  it  to  a  being  higher  than  himself.     It  is  at  all  times 


10  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

apparent  that  this  being,  whom  he  in  his  primitive  way  may 
worship  as  a  god,  creates,  by  some  undefined  power,  devel- 
opments and  appearances  that  inspire  him  with  mystery  and 
awe.  Consequently,  he  endeavors,  in  his  own  simple  way, 
to  call  into  existence  creations  of  his  own  that  shall  impress 
those  fellow  men  whom  he  considers  his  inferiors  as  much 
as  he  is  impressed  by  the  works  of  his  mysterious  Supreme 
Bein. 


18.  Oi'iffin  of  Tattooing-.  —  In  some  savage  tribes,  this 
desire   is   expressed   in  the    attempt   to  increase  the  facial 
expression  by  which  he  expects  to  strike  terror  to  his  enemies, 
rivals,  or  inferiors,  or  to  create  what  appears  to  him  a  new 
and  mysterious  beauty.     This  he  accomplishes  by  tattooing, 
or  sometimes  merely   with  paint.      It  is  a  remarkable  fact 
that  hideous  as  this  practice  renders  his  visage,  it  is,  in  most 
cases,  exercised  with  the  greatest  care  that  the  lines  shall  be 
so  placed  as  to  increase  the  facial  expression  and  develop,  to 
the  greatest  extent,  the  eccentricities  of  his  natural  features. 
Trivial  as  this  detail  may  at  first  appear,  it  lies  at  the  bottom 
of  the  fundamental   principles  of  decorative   design.      The 
savage  warrior  does  not  obliterate  his  own  expression  and 
cover  his  face  with  paint  and  tattoo  marks  to  create  a  new 
one,  but  simply  arranges  the  lines  to  emphasize  the  details 
of   severity   that  he  already  possesses    and    with  which  he 
expects  to  inspire  an  impression  of  terror. 

19.  Origin   of  Set   Styles.  —  It  can  be  clearly  shown 
throughout  all  history  that  in  certain  periods,  an  individual 
mind,  stronger  than  those  with  which  it  is  surrounded,  will 
impress  itself  on  a  generation  and  carry  with  it  a  host  of 
other  minds  of  inferior  power.     These  inferior  minds  imitate 
what  they  know  to  be  better  than  what  they  can  create,  but 
do  not  imitate  so  closely  as  to  destroy  their  own  individual 
ambition  to  originate.      It  is  to  this  tendency  that  we  owe 
the  birth  and  the  modifications  of  styles. 

The  efforts  of  the  people  in  the  earliest  stages  of  civiliza- 
tion are  like  those  of  children,  though  lacking  in  power  of 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  11 

expression,  they  possess  a  grace  and  originality  rarely  found 
in  middle  age,  and  never  in  manhood's  decline.  The  same 
may  be  found  in  the  infancy  of  any  art,  which  we  will 
endeavor  to  point  out  as  we  go  along.  When  art  struggles 
for  an  existence,  it  succeeds  by  creating  for  itself  new  forms 
and  new  ideas,  but,  when  reveling  in  its  own  successes,  it 
fails. 

20.  Effect  of  Traditional   Styles. — The  pleasure  we 
receive  in  contemplating  the  crude  attempts  at  ornament  of 
the  most  primitive  tribes  arises  from  our  appreciation  of  a 
difficult  accomplishment.     We  are  interested  in  the  evidence 
of  the  intention,  and  are  surprised  at  the  simple  and  child-like 
rudeness  by  which  the  result  is  accomplished.     In  fact,  what 
we  seek  in  their  work  of  art  is  the  evidence  of  mind — the 
evidence  of  that  desire  to  create  to  which  we  have  already 
referred.     This  evidence  of  mind,  strange  to  say,  is  much 
more  readily  found  in  the  rude  attempts  at  savage  ornament 
than  in  the  innumerable  productions  of  a  highly  advanced 
civilization. 

When  art  is  manufactured  by  a  combined  effort,  instead 
of  being  originated  by  the  efforts  of  an  individual,  the  true 
instincts,  which  constitute  its  greatest  charm,  are  lost.  By 
this  we  mean  that  the  art  of  the  present  day  is  the  result  of 
the  combined  efforts  of  artists  and  artisans  through  centuries 
of  development,  whereas  the  art  of  the  savage  tribes  is  the 
expression  of  the  mind  of  an  individual  warrior,  untram- 
meled  by  tradition. 

21.  Expression  of  Taste  In  Savage  Ornament. — In 

Fig.  1  is  shown  a  reproduction  of  a  cloth  pattern,  the  original 
of  which  came  from  the  savage  tribes  of  the  Samoan  Islands. 
It  is  made  from  thin  sheets  of  bark  stripped  from  a  peculiar 
species  of  tree,  and  is  beaten  out  and  united  so  as  to  form 
one  long  parallelogram  of  cloth.  Certainly  nothing  could 
be  more  primitive  as  a  method  of  manufacture.,  yet  the  pat- 
tern shows  the  existence  of  taste  and  skill,  and  an  ingemiity 
of  design  rarely  found  in  many  of  our  woven  fabrics  of  the 


13 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


present  day.  The  pattern  is  executed  by  means  of  small 
wooden  stamps,  and  the  work,  though  rude  and  irregular  in 
its  execution,  conveys  the  intention  at  every  point.  There  is 
a  skilful  balancing  of  the  masses  and  a  judicious  avoidance  of 

lines  that  would  tend  to  cause 
the  eye  to  run  in  one  direction. 
This  is  done  by  opposing  each 
set  of  lines  with  others  of 
opposite  tendency.  There  are 
many  styles  and  patterns  of  this 
work,  all  of  which  show  posi- 
tive genius  in  their  arrange- 
ment and  development. 

22.      Decorative    Theory 
Exhibited  by  the  Savage. — 

The  next  development  in  this 
primitive  art  is  found  in  the 
attempts  at  wood  carving,  and 
the  most  likely  place  to  look 
for  it  would  be  on  the  weapons 
used  for  the  defense  of  the  tribe, 
or  in  the  chase  of  animals  for 
food.  The  bravest  or  the  most 
skilful  of  the  warriors  or  hunters 
would  desire  to  distinguish  him- 
self somewhat  above  the  others 
by  the  possession  of  a  weapon, 
not  only  more  useful,  but,  in 
his  eyes,  more  complicated,  and  more  beautiful.  The  best 
shape  for  the  weapon  he  has  already  determined  by  experi- 
ence, and  the  enriching  of  its  surface  by  carving  naturally 
follows. 

The  eye  of  the  warrior  being  accustomed  to  the  geometrical 

forms  and  details  of  the  stamped  cloths,  his  hand  attempts 

to  imitate   them  in  the  handles  of  his  wooden  utensils  by 

means  of  knife  cuts,  and  the  paddle  shown  in  Fig.  2  illustrates 

vr  faithfully   this   representation   has   been   carried   out. 


FIG.  l. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


13 


This  instrument  is  from  New  Zealand,  and  the  taste  exhibited 
in  its  carving  would  bear  favorable  comparison  with  the  art 
works  of  the  highest  state  of  civiliza- 
tion. There  is  not  a  line  on  its  sur- 
face misapplied;  the  general  shape  is 
most  graceful  and  elegant,  and  the 
decoration  is  applied  everywhere  to 
best  develop  the  form. 

The  New  Zealander's  instinct  taught 
him  that  his  paddle  should  be  strong, 
not  only  in  reality,  but  in  appearance, 
and  his  ornament  is  so  disposed  as  to 
give  an  appearance  of  strength  greater 
than  it  would  have  had  if  the  surface 
had  remained  undecorated.  The  band 
in  the  center  of  the  length  of  the 
blade  is  continued  around  both  sides, 
binding  the  border  that  extends  around 
the  edge,  and  this  latter  appears  to 
hold  in  place  all  the  other  bands.  Had 
these  bands  run  out  like  the  center 
one,  they  would  appear  to  have  a  tend- 
ency to  slip  off,  as  the  center  one  is 
the  only  one  that  can  occupy  its  posi- 
tion around  the  end  of  the  paddle 
with  repose. 

23.  Value  of  the  Study  of  His- 
toric Ornament.  —  These  few  facts 
have  been  pointed  out  in  the  prece- 
ding pages,  so  that  the  student  may 
fully  appreciate  that  beauty  of  orna- 
ment does  not  depend  on  the  fidelity 
with  which  ancient  ornament  can  be 
copied.  The  natural  tendency  of  the 
mind  will  produce  good  results  in 
the  application  of  ornament  in  nearly 
FIG.  2.  all  cases,  if  it  is  allowed  to  work 


14  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

logically  and  without  influence   from  stereotyped  or  his- 
torical forms. 

The  study  of  historic  ornament  is  practiced  to  familiarize 
the  student  with  what  has  been  done  heretofore,  to  point 
out  to  him  such  parts  of  the  ancient  works  as  have  been 
done  well,  and  to  show  him  why  they  are  considered  to  be 
done  well,  and  also  to  render  him  familiar  with  other  works 
of  celebrated  art  periods  which,  though  they  may  be  beauti- 
ful in  themselves,  are  not,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  as  high  a 
grade  of  art  as  our  New  Zealander's  paddle,  because  of  the 
lack  of  expression  of  mind  in  the  designs,  and  the  tendency 
to  imitate  the  works  of  what  was  believed  to  be  a  superior 
mind,  rather  than  to  develop  a  new  style  along  new  lines. 

24.  How  to  Study  Ornament. — From  what  has  already 
been  said,  it  will  be  easily  understood  that  the  ornament  of 
a  people  carries  in  itself  the  characteristics  of  that  people. 
It  must  be  interpreted,  however,  by  the  aid  of  the  history 
of  the  people  as  expressed  in  their  monuments.  The  sub- 
ject of  historic  ornament  should  therefore  be  studied,  not 
only  with  regard  to  its  grace  and  beauty,  but  as  a  key  to  a 
portrayal  of  the  qualities,  characteristics,  and  disposition  of 
the  people  to  whom  it  belonged. 

In  the  consideration  of  the  ornament  of  a  country,  we 
must  first  investigate  all  the  details  that  are  likely  in  any 
way  to  affect  the  art,  in  order  that  we  may  better  under- 
stand why  certain  characteristics  exist  in  the  ornament  of 
one  people  and  are  entirely  absent  in  that  of  another. 


EGYPTIAN    ORNAMENT. 

25.    Influence  of  the  Nile  on  Egyptian  Ornament. 

It  seldom  or  never  rains  in  Egypt,  except  in  the  delta  at  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Nile,  and  nature  has  provided  for  the 
fertilizing  of  the  land  by  an  annual  overflow  of  the  river 
that  brings  down  mud  and  alluvial  soil  from  the  mountain 
regions,  and  deposits  it  on  top  of  the  old  soil,  thus  enrich- 
ing it.  For  three  months  the  water  slowly  rises  in  the  Nile 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  15 

Valley,  and,  for  three  months  following,  the  river  slowly 
subsides  and  then  remains  a  narrow  stream  for  the  rest  of 
the  year,  bordered  by  green  fields  of  cotton  and  grass.  The 
phenomenon  of  this  yearly  inundation  of  the  Nile,  Fig.  3, 
slow,  majestic,  and  munificent,  naturally  impressed  the  early 
Egyptian  with  a  feeling  of  mystery  and  awe.  In  fact,  in 
this  inundation  lies  the  key  to  the  wealth  of  ancient  Egypt. 


FIG.  8. 

Dwelling  during  the  dry  season  on  what  would  appear  to 
be  a  barren  plain,  the  Egyptian  saw  the  provision  of  a 
Supreme  Being  working  for  his  good  when  the  waters  of  the 
Nile  gradually  overflowed,  fertilized  the  soil,  and  then  slowly 
subsided,  leaving  him  to  plant  his  seed.  It  is  not  strange, 
therefore,  that  the  Nile  and  everything  associated  with  it 
should  be  sacred.  In  all  Egyptian  ornament,  we  find  some 
symbol  or  detail  that  reminds  us  of  this  great  beneficence  of 
Providence  and  favor  to  the  Egyptian.  The  Egyptian  was 
an  appreciative  mortal,  and  in  his  art  and  architecture  every- 
where placed  some  reminder  of  the  fact  that  he  could  do 
nothing  and  would  be  nothing  without  the  care  and  watch- 
fulness of  this  supreme  power. 

2O.  Antiquity  of  Egyptian  Ornament. — In  study- 
ing Egyptian  ornament,  however,  we  cannot  begin  at  the 


16  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

beginning',  as  we  can  with  other  styles,  inasmuch  as  we  have 
no  historical  records  of  any  beginning.  A  peculiarity  of  the 
Egyptian  over  all  other  styles  is  that  the  more  ancient  the 
ornament,  the  nearer  perfection  is  the  art.  Architectural 
monuments,  erected  2,000  years  before  the  Christian  era,  are 
built  of  stones  taken  from  the  ruins  of  much  more  ancient 
buildings  that  were  really  more  perfect.  We  are  therefore 
compelled  to  study  Egyptian  art  during  a  period  of  its 
decline,  but  can  accept  the  style  as  absolutely  original,  inas- 
much as  we  have  no  record  of  the  existence  of  an  earlier 
nation  from  whom  they  could  have  borrowed  it. 

In  Egyptian  art,  there  are  no  traces  of  infancy,  nor  of  for- 
eign influence,  and  it  is  safe  to  infer  that  the  Egyptian  artist 
drew  his  inspiration  directly  from  nature.  The  types  of  his 
ornament  are  few  but  perfectly  natural,  and  in  the  earliest 
period  of  Egyptian  art,  the  representation  is  but  slightly 
removed  from  the  type;  but  the  later  we  descend  in  history, 
the  more  we  find  the  original  types  receded  from,  until  it 
is  difficult,  in  many  cases,  to  discover  from  what  original 
idea  the  ornament,  by  successive  mental  efforts,  has  been 
developed. 

27.  Influence  of  Ileligrioii.— Although  the  Egyptians 
decorated  every  article  of  utility  that  was  in  any  way  asso- 
ciated with  their  civil,  domestic,  or  religious  duties,  we 
depend  for  examples  of  their  ornament  almost  entirely  on 
the  designs  and  writings  executed  in  connection  with  their 
complicated  form  of  religion. 

The  temples,  tombs,  and  other  sacred  monuments  of  the 
most  ancient  inhabitants  afford  us  the  most  rational  and  pro- 
gressive examples  of  ornament,  and  it  is  from  these  that  we 
derive  nearly  all  the  information  that  we  have  of  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  the  early  Egyptians.  In  the  temples 
are  preserved  certain  stone  tablets  and  other  devices,  on 
which  are  records  of  certain  ceremonies  in  connection  with 
their  religion,  and  these  records  are  always  executed  in  their 
peculiar  form  of  hieroglyphs.  The  word  hieroglyph,  being 
literally  translated,  means  sacred  writing,  but  in  its  specific 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


17 


sense  is  used  to  indicate  the  peculiar  pictured  descriptions 
of  the  Egyptian  religious  ceremonies  that  are  found  carved 
and  painted  on  the  walls  of  their  tombs  and  temples. 

28.  The  Egyptian  temple  consisted  of  a  small  sanctu- 
ary, or  sekos,  as  it  was  called,  that  was  reached  through  a 
large  columnar  hall  known  as  the  hall  of  assembly,  or  some- 
times the  hypostyle  hall,  the  latter  term  meaning  covered 
over  on  columns.  In  front  of  the  hypostyle  hall  was  a 
large  open  court,  surrounded  by  high  and  massive  walls  and 


FIG.  4. 

entered  between  two  tower-like  front  walls,  called  pylons. 
Each  of  these  parts  was  varied  slightly  in  different  structures, 
some  having  two  courts  .in  front  of  the  hypostyle  hall,  known 
as  the  outer  and  inner  court,  and  in  many  of  the  temples  the 
sekos  was  surrounded  by  a  number  of  smaller  apartments. 
On  the  outside  of  the  temple,  the  entrance  was  approached 
through  a  long  avenue — often  a  mile  or  more  in  extent- 
lined  on  each  side  with  colossal  sphinxes,  and  occasionally 


18 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


ending  in  a  large  monumental  gateway  advanced  before  the 
main  entrance  to  the  temple,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  This 
gateway  was  called  a  propylon,  and  it  stood  alone  before 
the  main  entrance  like  a  silent  sentinel.  The  example  shown 
in  Fig.  4  is  from  the  temple  of  Rameses  III,  at  Karnak,  and 
from  this  a  fair  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  these  great  archi- 
tectural details  may  be  obtained.  The  faces  of  the  propylon 
were  always  decorated  with  elaborate  hieroglyphic  devices 
as  shown,  and  over  the  top  was  carved  the  winged  globe,  of 
which  we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  hereafter.  Beyond  the 
propylon  stand  the  two  great  pylons  that  form  the  outer  front 
wall  of  the  building,  and  the  entrance  between  these  two 
masses  is  similar  in  detail  to  the  gateway  advanced  in  front. 
A  better  idea  of  this  arrangement  can  be  obtained  from 
Fig.  o,  which  shows  a  portion  of  the  avenue,  the  entrance, 
and  pylons  of  the  temple  of  Edfou,  in  Upper  Egypt.  In 


FIG.  5. 


this  case,  the  propylon  is  omitted,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
long  avenue  of  sphinxes  stand  two  great  obelisks— one  on 
each  side  of  the  entrance.  The  walls  of  the  pylons  them- 
selves are  decorated  in  hieroglyphs,  the  design  at  the  bottom 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


19 


representing  a  group  of   prisoners,   taken   from   Palestine, 
about  to  be  executed  by  the  king. 

29.  Interior  of  tlie  Temple. — On  the  inside  of  the 
temple,  these  pylons  are  sculptured  in  much  the  same  man- 
ner, though  the  lower  part  of  them  is  largely  covered  by  the 
roofed  passageway  around  the  edges  of  the  court.  Fig.  6  is 


a  reproduction  of  a  photograph  taken  in  the  inner  court  of  a 
temple  on  the  island  of  Philse,  and  shows  the  appearance  of 
these  pylons  on  the  inside,  and  a  portion  of  the  columns 
supporting  the  roof  on  the  right  side  of  the  court.  The 
pylons  were  massive  structures,  and  contained,  in  their  in- 
terior, a  number  of  secret  rooms  accessible  only  to  the 
priest  and  members  of  the  royal  family. 

An  entrance  to  the  interior  of  one  of  the  pylons  is  seen  on 
the  left  of  Fig.  6,  and  it  will  be  observed  that  the  general 
treatment  around  the  door  and  over  it  is  precisely  the  same, 
but  on  a  smaller  scale,  as  the  main  entrance  to  the  temple 


20  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

and    the   general   character  of    the    propylon    illustrated  in 

Fig.  4. 

A  better  idea  of  the  massiveness  of  these  pylons  may  be 
obtained  from  Fig.  7,  a  photograph  of  the  temple  of  Edfou, 
showing  the  taper  of  the  walls  from  the  ground  upwards,  a 
characteristic  of  all  Egyptian  architecture.  This  illustra- 
tion is  taken  from  above  the  side  walls  of  the  temple,  so 


FIG.  7. 


that  the  entrance  columns  of  the  hypostyle  hall  at  the 
rear  of  the  court  may  be  seen,  and  by  comparing  Fig.  7 
with  Fig.  5,  both  being  illustrations  of  the  same  tem- 
ple, a  fair  idea  of  the  state  of  preservation  of  this  great 
edifice  may  be  obtained,  Fig.  5  representing  it  in  its 
original  form  and  Fig.  7  being  a  photograph  of  it  at  the 
present  day. 

At  the  top,  the  walls  of  the  pylons  flared  out,  forming  a 
simple  concave  cornice,  above  which  gleaming  cressets  at 
night  and  flaunting  banners  by  day  were  carried  on  long 
iron  stocks  or  staffs,  which,  combined  with  the  highly 
colored  decorations  on  the  walls,  gave  the  biiilding  an  effect 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


21 


of  mysterious  grandeur,  perfectly  consistent  with  the  com- 
plex system  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  belief. 

The  iron  stocks  carrying  the  banners,  etc.  were  inserted 
in  the  recesses  shown  on  each  side  of  the  entrance. 


FIG.  8. 


3O.  Obelisks. — The  obelisks  in 'front  of  the  temple  are 
in  themselves  characteristic  of  Egyptian  art.  Each  of  these 
consisted  of  a  tall  stone  shaft,  Quarried  in  a  single  piece, 


22  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

and  sculptured  on  four  sides  with  elaborate  hieroglyphic 
ornament.  A  photographic  reproduction  of  one  of  these 
interesting  details  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  This  was  one  of  a 
pair  of  obelisks  known  as  "Cleopatra's  needles,"  and  is 
shown  as  it  stood  in  the  city  of  Alexandria,  Egypt,  for 
nearly  2,000  years.  It  is  67  feet  in  height,  and  7  feet 
7  inches  square  at  the  base.  It  originally  stood  with  its 
companion  before  the  entrance  of  the  temple  at  Heliopolis 
in  Lower  Egypt,  but  was  removed  to  the  city  of  Alexandria 
after  the  defeat  of  Anthony  and  Cleopatra  by  the  Roman 
emperor  Augustus,  just  before  the  beginning  of  the  Chris- 
tian era.  In  the  year  1878  it  was  removed  from  Alexandria 
and  transported  to  New  York  City,  where  it  now  stands  on 
a  moimd  on  the  east  side  of  Central  Park. 

31.  The  temples  differ  widely  in  size  and  elaboration 
of  plan,  but  the  general  scheme  of  arrangement  is  the  same 
in  all  cases,  whether  the  example  is  taken  from  Northern 
Egypt  or  Southern  Nubia.  Between  the  years  1600  and 
1100  B.  C.,  the  greatest  temples  were  built.  The  Pharaohs 


FIG.  9. 


wanted  eternal  dwelling  places  for  their  deities,  and  built 
their  temples  entirely  of  stone,  laid  up  in  blocks  so  massive 
and  so  well  fitted  that  they  have  withstood  the  ravages  of 
time  down  to  the  present  day. 

In  Fig.  9  is  shown  the  plan  of  the  Ramesseum,  a  temple 
built  by,  and  named  after,  Rameses,  one  of  the  kings  of 
Kgypt,  who  reigned  about  1500  B.  C.  Here  the  sanctuary 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  23 

is  shown  at  A,  surrounded  by  a  number  of  smaller  apart- 
ments a,  which  were  used  by  the  priests  and  members  of 
the  royal  family,  both  as  places  for  their  mysterious  devo- 
tions and  as  royal  residences;  the  king  and  his  immedi- 
ate relatives  being  considered  earthly  representatives  of 
the  gods.  The  sanctuary  contained  the  shrine,  and  was 
entered  through  either  of  two  portals,  one  from  the  hypo- 
style  hall  B  and  the  other  communicating  with  one  of  the 
sacred  apartments  a'. 

At  B  is  shown  the  hypostyle  hall,  the  roof  of  which  was 
supported  by  two  sets  of  columns,  the  central  ones  being 


FIG.  10. 

longer  than  those  on  each  side,  in  order  to  provide  a  clear- 
story for  the  admission  of  light  and  air. 

This  is  more  clearly  shown  in  Fig.  10,  which  is  an  illus- 
tration photographed  from  a  restored  model  of  the  great 
hypostyle  hall  in  the  temple  at  Karnak.  At  a  is  seen  the 
double  row  of  long  columns,  which  are  connected  longitu- 
dinally by  the  stone  lintels  b,  in  order  to  receive  the  edges  of 


24  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

the  stone  slabs  r,  which  form  the  roof  over  the  nave,  or  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  temple.  On  each  side  of  these  are  the 
shorter  columns  </,  which  are  connected  transversely  -by  the 
lintels  r,  and  the  inside  row  longitudinally  by  the  lintel  _/j 
to  support  the  roof  slabs  g  in  the  same  manner  as  over  the 
nave.  An  open  space  Ji  is  thus  left  to  admit  light  to  the 
interior  of  the  hall,  and  form  a  clearstory  similar  to  the 
same  detail  in  our  more  modern  cathedrals,  of  which  we 
shall  learn  later  on. 

The  spacing  of  the  supports  being  governed  entirely  by 
the  length  of  lintel  the  builders  were  able  to  quarry,  the 
columns  are  exceedingly  close  together.  For  this  reason, 
large  apartments  were  never  entirely  roofed  over  in  the 
Egyptian  temples,  but  were  open  to  the  sky,  either  wholly 
or  in  part,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9  at  C,  which  is  the  inner  court 
of  the  temple,  from  which  the  hypostyle  hall  must  be 
entered. 

On  each  side  of  this  inner  court  is  a  double  row  of  columns 
supporting  a  roof  extending  from  the  side  walls,  while  at  the 
back  is  a  single  row  of  columns  c,  and  a  row  of  square 
piers  d,  which  carry  a  portion  of  the  roof  that  extends  over 
from  the  hypostyle  hall.  Another  row  of  square  piers  e  car- 
ries the  roof  over  the  front  end  of  this  inner  court,  which, 
with  the  other  partial  coverings,  surrounds  the  court  with  a 
narrow  projecting  roof  on  all  four  sides. 

32.  The  effect  of  this  treatment  must  have  been  very 
imposing  in  itself,  but,  to  add  to  the  impression,  colossal 
statues  were  carved  on  the  inside  faces  of  the  square  piers, 
and  flights  of  stone  steps  led  up  to  a  gallery  at  the  level  of 
the  hypostyle  hall,  the  floor  of  which  was  considerably  above 
the  level  of  the  inner  court.  The  outer,  or  entrance,  court  D 
was  a  comparatively  plain  enclosure,  with  columns  on  each 
side  and  a  single  flight  of  steps  up  to  the  floor  of  the  inner 
court  above.  It  was  entered  through  a  narrow  portal  /, 
flanked  on  each  side  by  the  massive  pylons  E,  and  served 
merely  as  an  entrance  court  preparatory  to  the  grandeur 
and  solemnity  of  the  more  sacred  apartments  beyond. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


25 


33.  The  early  Egyptian  statues  were  usually  colossal  in 
size,  and  there  was  no  attempt  at  economy  or  saving  of  time 
in  any  structure  that  was  erected  for  the  purpose  of  religious 
ceremony  or  the  burial  of  their  dead.     The  pyramids  (see 
Figs.  3  and  11)  were  erected  as  tombs  for  the  kings,  and 
give  a  very  fair  idea  of  the  patience  and  persistence  of  this 
ancient  people,  that  would  work  100,000  men  for  20  years  on 
a  tomb  for  the  body  of  their  king,  at  a  cost  of  over  $40,000,- 
000.     It  is  a  mystery  to  this  day  how  the  stones  were  quar- 
ried and  transported  with  the  primitive  tools  and  machinery 
in  use  3,000  years  before  the  Christian  era,  for  this  great 
pyramid  of  Cheops,  800  feet  square  at  the  base,  and  450  feet 
in  height,  is  the  largest  structure  in  the  world  today. 

34.  The    Great    Sphinx. —  Next   to    the   pyramids   in 
massive  grandeur  comes  the  Great  Sphinx  at  Gizeh.     This 
is  a  statue  of  the  Egyptian  god  Harmachis,  carved  out  of 
solid  rock,  making  a  figure  14C  feet  long,  65  feet  high,  and 


FIG.  11. 


34  feet  across  the  shoulders.  The  body,  which  has  the  form 
of  a  crouching  lion,  is  now  entirely  buried  in  drifted  sand, 
but  the  human  head,  measuring  28  feet  from  chin  to  top, 
and  the  broad,  massive  shoulders,  are  still  visible  above  the 


26  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

sand  drifts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  11.  Between  the  forefeet  of 
the  body  is  excavated  a  temple  where  the  god  was  wor- 
shiped, and,  if  built  at  the  same  time  as  the  sphinx,  this 
temple  is  the  oldest  architectural  monument  on  record,  as  it 
antedates  the  pyramids  over  1,000  years. 

35.  Types  of  People. — There  were  two  types  of  people 
among  the  Egyptians,  varying  decidedly  in  physique  and 
intellectual  appearance.  One  type  of  aristocratic  origin 
possessed  a  refined  face,  with  a  moderately  high  forehead, 
aquiline  nose,  rather  full  lips,  and  rounded  chin;  the  other 
type  was  from  plebeian  stock,  with  low  forehead,  short  nose, 
heavy  jaws,  and  very  thick  lips.  The  former  was  serious 
and  thoughtful,  grave,  dignified,  and  religious;  the  latter 
gay,  pleasure  loving,  light  hearted,  and  good  natured.  These 
two  types  are  represented  in  many  of  their  hieroglyphs  and 
wall  paintings,  and  are  often  used  as  symbols  of  the  very 
attributes  we  ascribe  to  them.  The  lower  type  have  been 
used  to  express  some  degraded  or  inferior  people,  and  the 
more  refined  type  have  been  used  to  represent  royal  person- 
ages and  the  gods. 

The  kings  and  royal  families  in  Egypt  being  considered 
earthly  representatives  of  the  gods,  had  privileges  in  the 
complicated  system  of  Egyptian  religious  rites  that  the 
priests  themselves  did  not  enjoy.  An  offering  to  a  king  was 
equivalent,  under  certain  circumstances,  to  an  offering  to 
one  of  the  gods.  The  Egyptians  worshiped  many  gods,  but 
the  chief  ones  were  Osiris,  I  sis,  Horus,  and  Thoth.  They 
also  paid  religious  regards  to  animals.  Cats,  dogs,  cows, 
hawks,  beetles,  and  monkeys  were  sacred  throughout  all 
Egypt,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter. 

3(>.  The  [Lotus  and  Papyrus. — The  most  conspicuous 
type  in  Egyptian  art  is  the  lotus  (Fig.  12),  a  plant  growing 
on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  somewhat  resembling  our  pond 
lily,  but  differing  from  it  in  coloring.  The  lotus  leaves  float 
on  the  surface  of  the  water  at  the  end  of  a  long  stem,  in  the 
same  manner  as  do  the  pond-lily  leaves,  but  the  blossom 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  27 

stands  on  a  stiff  stalk  high  out  of  the  water,  and  is  of  a  bril- 
liant purple  color  on  the  border  petals,  with  a  heart  of  deep 
orange.  The  lotus  was  a  sacred  flower,  and  as  an  offering  to 
the  gods  was  conspicuous  in  the  highest  forms  of  worship. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  the  importance  of  the  lotus  in 
Egyptian  religious  theories.  The  deified  lotus  stands  repre- 
sentative of  the  homage  rendered  to  the  beneficent  action  of 
water  and  sun  on  the  sleeping  earth.  It  is  the  symbol  of  the 
annual  evolution  of  the  seasons,  causing  generation  to  suc- 
ceed generation,  and  the  return  of  life,  where  everything  had 
seemed  barren  in  the  immobility  of  death. 

The  papyrus  plant  was  also  used  largely  in  Egyptian  art 
and  associated  with  the  Nile  on  whose  banks  it  grew,  but  not 
to  such  an  extent  as  the  lotus.  From  the  papyrus  plant  a 


FIG.  12. 

kind  of  paper  was  manufactured  on  which  the  Egyptians 
wrote  many  of  their  sacred  legends,  and  it  is  from  the  name 
of  this  plant  that  the  modern  word  "paper"  is  derived. 

37.  The  Winged  Disk.— The  sun  itself  was  also  the 
object  of  direct  worship,  the  ceremony  of  which  was  varied 
by  the  priests  in  order  to  make  it  penetrate  more  deeply 
among  the  masses.  The  disk,  as  representative  of  the  sun, 
is  used  in  many  Egyptian  hieroglyphs,  and  received  a  certain 


28 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


share  of  homage  owing  to  its  relation  to  agricultural  devel- 
opment after  the  Nile  had  completed  its  inundation.  A 
combination  of  the  disk  and  feathered  forms  produced  an 
ornament  generally  known  as  the  winged  disk,  or  the  winged 
globe  (Fig.  13).  This  consists  of  the  solar  disk,  supported 


FIG.  13. 

on  each  side  by  an  asp  (the  royal  symbol  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Egypt),  and  the  wide  outstretching  wings  symbolize  the 
untiring  activity  of  the  sun  in  its  beneficence;  hence,  a  divine 
protecting  power.  It  is  emblematic  as  a  whole  of  the  tri- 
umph of  right  over  wrong,  and  an  inscription  at  Edfou  says 
that  Thoth,  the  god  of  speech  and  wisdom,  ordered  that  this 
emblem  should  be  carved  over  every  door  in  Egypt.  It  is 
everywhere  apparent  in  Egyptian  sacred  painting,  but  varies 
slightly  in  detail  according  to  the  place  where  it  is  used. 
Wherever  it  appeared  carved  over  the  doorway  of  a  temple, 
painted  on  the  walls  of  a  tomb,  or  woven  into  a  fabric  of  the 
vestments  of  a  priest  or  king,  this  emblem  was  a  monument 
of  the  Egyptian's  religious  sincerity  and 
appreciation  of  benefits  derived  from 
his  god. 


38.  The  Soarabseus. — The  scara- 
baeus,  or  beetle,  Fig.  14,  was  identified 
with  the  rising  sun,  and  typified  creation 
and  resurrection,  or  new  birth.  Its 
exact  significance  is  somewhat  com- 
plicated, as  are  in  fact  all  Egyptian 
emblems;  but,  owing  to  the  habits  of  the  beetle,  slowly 
developing  from  a  grub  through  various  stages  to  a  full- 
grown  insect,  it  is  emblematic  of  progress  and  evolution. 
In  the  tombs  and  ruins  of  the  Egyptian  temples  are  found 


TIG.  14. 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  29 

thousands  of  models  of  these  beetles  that  seem  to  have  been 
worn  as  amulets. 

39.  Consistency   of  Egyptian   Ornament. — Another 
type  of  Egyptian  ornament  is  the  palm,  from  which  canopies 
wrere  made,  and  also  the  fans  and  shades  that  were  held  over 
the  heads  of  royal  personages  during  ceremonies,  to  protect 
them  from  the  sun.     These  few  types  form  the  foundation  of 
an  immense  variety  of  ornament  with  which  the  Egyptian 
decorated  the  temple  of  his  gods,  the  palace  of  his  kings,  the 
covering  of  his  person,  and  his  articles  of  luxury,  as  well  as 
those  articles  of  more  modest  daily  use,  from  the  wooden 
spoon  that  fed  him  in  infancy  to  the  mournful  boat  that 
carried  his  embalmed  body  across  the  Nile  to  its  final  resting 
place  in  the  Valley  of  the  Dead.     Following  these  types  in  a 
manner  so  nearly  allied  to  the  natural  form,  they  observed 
the  same  laws  that  the  works  of  nature  ever  displayed,  and, 
no  matter  how  conventionalized  their  ornament  ever  became, 
it  was  always  true.     The  Egyptian  artist  never  violated  a 
natural  principle,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  he  never  destroyed 
the  consistency  of  his   conventional   representation  by  too 
close  an  imitation  of  the  type.     A  lotus  flower  carved  in 
stone,  or  forming  the  graceful  termination  of  a  column,  or 
painted  flat  on  the  walls  as  an  offering  to  the  gods,  was  never 
a  lotus  portrait,  and  never  impressed  the  beholder  as  one 
that  might  be  plucked,  but  was  always  the  architectural  rep- 
resentation of  it  suited  to  the  material  in  which  it  was  cut, 
or  the  colors  in  which  it  was  rendered. 

40.  Conventionalism. — A  good  idea  of  the  simple  con- 
ventionality of  their  forms  can  be  obtained  from  Fig.  15, 
where  at  (a)  is  shown  the  conventional  representation  of  the 
lotus  blossom,  the  outside  leaves  of  which,  in  colored  work, 
were  usually  painted  a  deep  green.     The  first  low  of  petals 
was  also  green,  but  of  a  lighter  shade,  while  the  innermost 
petals  were  red.     The  space  between  the  petals  was  painted 
a  deep  yellow.     At  a  distance  from  the  eye,  the  red  and 
yellow  seemed  to  blend  together  and  form  a  deep  orange 


30  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

hue  with  a  suggestion  of  surrounding  green,. characteristic 
of  the  general  appearance  of  the  lotus  flower. 

The  transition  from  (a)  in  Fig.  15  to  the  form  shown  at 
(/;)  is  by  no  means  a  difficult  matter,  the  omission  of  the 
innermost  row  of  petals  being  the  only  radical  change. 
From  (b]  to  (c)  is  a  simple  development  wherein  the  calyx 


(d) 


of  the  conventionalized  flower  has  become  larger  in  propor- 
tion to  the  petals,  and  from  (c)  to  (d)  is  but  a  step  in  orna- 
mentation, showing  the  gradual  growth  of  design  from  the 
conventionalized  rendering  of  the  blossom  itself  to  a  device 
that  is  purely  ornamental  and  derived  from,  though  in  no 
way  representative  of,  the  Egyptian  lotus.  The  further 
development  of  this  form  in  Assyrian  and  Greek  art  will 
show  the  importance  of  this  line  of  study. 

41.  Classes  of  Egyptian  Ornament. — Egyptian  orna- 
ment may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  that  which  is  con- 
structive, or  forms  a  part  of  the  monument  itself;  that  which 
is  representative,  but  is  at  the  same  time  conventionally 
rendered;  and  that  which  is  simply  decorative.  In  each 
class,  the  ornament  is  always  symbolic,  and  the  few  types 
mentioned,  upon  which  it  is  founded,  we  find  are  but  slightly 
changed  during  the  entire  period  of  Egyptian  civilization. 

4xJ.  The  student  of  historic  ornament  should  familiarize 
himself  with  the  difference  between  the  terms  style,  class, 
and  type.  The  term  style  is  used  to  indicate  the  period  or 
nationality  of  the  ornament,  as  the  Early  Egyptian  style;  the 
term  class  is  applied  when  we  wish  to  indicate  a  subdivision 
of  some  style,  as  the  constructive  class  of  the  Egyptian 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


31 


style.  The  term  type  is  used  to  refer  to  the  natural  form 
from  which  the  ornament  is  derived,  as  the  lotus  type  of 
Egyptian  ornament. 

43.  Constructive  Ornament. —  Of  the  constructive 
ornament  are  the  columns  and  their  terminations,,  and  the 
crowning  members  of  the  walls.  The  column  base  was  fre- 


FIG.  16. 


quently  molded  to  represent  the  root,  and  the  shaft  was 
reeded  in  representation  of  trie  stalk,  while  the  capital  was 
carved  similar  to  the  form  of  a  bud  or  full-blown  lotus 
flower,  as  shown  in  Fig.  10,  where  at  (a)  is  seen  the  bud 


32  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

capital,  and  at  (b)  the  capital  derived  from  the  full-blown 
flower.  All  this  was  symbolic,  as  the  lotus  meant  much  to 
the  Egyptian. 

In  Fig.  17  are  shown  two  square  columns  standing  in  the 
ruins  of  the  temple  of  Karnak,  the  one  to  the  left  being  dec- 
orated with  a  lotus  flower  carved  in  high  relief,  while  the 
one  to  the  right  is  similarly  decorated  with  the  papyrus 


FIG.  17. 


characteristic   of 


plant.     The   plain,   severe   treatment,    so 
Egyptian  art,  is  forcibly  illustrated  here. 

Another  form  of  column  flares  out  at  the  top,  and  has  for 
its  original  type  the  papyrus  or  palm  tree,  as  shown  in  Fig.  18. 
This  style  was  usually  placed  in  the  center  of  the  halls  of 
assembly,  with  the  lotus-bud  columns  on  each  side,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  10.  All  columns  were  richly  colored  and  sometimes 
decorated  with  hieroglyphs. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


33 


Feathers  were  held  by  the  Egyptians  as  emblematic  of 
sovereignty,  and  the  cornices  of  their  temples  were  usually 
decorated  with  ornaments  derived  from 
a  combination  of  feathered  forms. 

44.      Representative   Ornament. 

The  second  class  of  Egyptian  ornament 
results  from  the  conventional  repre- 
sentation of  commonplace  things  upon 
the  walls  of  their  temples  and  tombs. 
In  this  kind  of  ornament  each  repre- 
sentation is  not  only  a  detail  of  the 
wall  decoration  but  is  a  hieroglyphic 
record  of  a  fact.  Sometimes  it  was 
carved  in  the  surface  of  the  walls,  and 
sometimes  merely  painted ;  and  occa- 
sionally, it  was  both  carved  and  painted. 
It  was  always  most  conventional,  and 
certain  details,  such  as  the  lotus  and 
papyrus,  were  represented  in  the  strictest 
geometrical  arrangement,  usually  sh'ow- 
ingthe  bud,  blossom, 
and  fruit  in  regular 
order,  typifying  the 
development  of  the 
entire  plant. 

In  Fig.  10  observe  the  straight,  stiff 
stem  and  trumpet-shaped  blossom,  the 
sharp-pointed  petals  of  the  calyx,  and 
the  geometrical  arrangement  of  the 
entire  plant,  with  all  its  distinguishing 
characteristics  emphasized  to  produce 
conventionalism. 

Egyptian  carved  ornament  of  this 
character  is  nearly  always  in  low  relief, 
and  is  sometimes  merely  incised  or  outlined  in  the  sur- 
face of  the  wall,  as  shown  in  Fig.  20.  On  work  executed 
in  a  later  period,  the  background  is  sometimes  cut  away, 


FIG.  18. 


Fio.  19. 


34 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


leaving  the  carved  ornament  and  figures  in  full  relief,  as 
in  Fig.  21. 

This  figure  represents  a  statue  of  the  queen,  Cleopatra, 
upon  whose  head  is  supported,  between  the  two  horns  of  the 
sacred  cow,  the  disk,  emblematic  of  the  sun.  The  head-dress 
consists  of  a  representation  of  the  buzzard,  a  sacred  bird, 
whose  head  protrudes  from  the  fore  part  of  the  head-dress, 
and  whose  wings  reach  down  on  each  side,  as  though  pro- 


FiG.  20. 


FIG.  21. 


tecting  the  .wearer.  The  panel  or  cartouch  in  the  upper 
left-hand  corner  contains  the  hieroglyphic  characters  spelling 
the  name  Cleopatra.  From  this  figure,  a  characteristic 
example  of  Egyptian  ornament  of  this  period,  we  can  obtain 
a  good  idea  of  the  contemporary  head-dress,  of  the  habit  and 
method  of  wearing  beads  and  necklaces,  and,  to  a  general 
extent,  the  cast  of  features  and  countenance  of  this  race  of 
people.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  these  carv- 
ings are  not  always  portraits,  but  symbolisms  drawn  to 
represent  the  characteristics  of  the  person  portrayed. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


35 


45.  Decorative  Ornament. — The  third  kind  of  Egyp- 
tian ornament,  that  which  is  purely  decorative,  is  found 
mostly  in  paintings  on  the  walls  of  tombs,  on  mummy  cases 
and  sarcophagi,  on  dresses  and  utensils. 

46.  The  Egyptians  believed  in  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  and  also  that  the  soul  would  return  after  death  and 
reoccupy  the  body ;  hence,  they  took  every  means  to  preserve 
the  body  in  order  that  it  should  be  in  a  fit  condition  for  the 
reception  of  the  soul  at  the  time  of  its  resurrection.     Death 
was  not  regarded  by  the  Egyptian  as  a 

great  calamity,  as  he  looked  on  his  earthly 
life  as  a  mere  temporary  existence  during 
which  he  made  elaborate  preparations  for 
the  preservation  of  his  body  after  death. 
This  accounts  for  the  massiveness  and  per- 
manency of  the  tombs,  some  of  which 
were  the  life  work  of  those  that  expected 
to  occupy  them. 

Tfre  body  was  embalmed  with  great 
care  ;  a.  scarabseus  was  fastened  to  the 
breast;  and  the  mummy  wrapped  in  cloths 
or  bandages  bearing  hieroglyphic  inscrip- 
tions. Jn  some  cases,  particularly  with 
the  wealthier  classes,  the  mummy  thus 
wrapped  was  placed  in  a  wooden  box, 
carved  inside  to  fit  the  form,  and  generally 
shaped  to  conform  to  the  lines  of  the 
body  on  the  outside,  as  shown  in  Fig.  22. 
The  box  was  then  carefully  sealed  and 
the  outside  painted,  or  often  gilded,  and 
covered  with  elaborate  and  complicated 
hieroglyphs  describing  the  life  and  deeds 
of  importance  connected  with  the  earthly 
existence  of  the  body  within. 

The  mummy  case  was  then  deposited  in  the  tomb, 
frequently  in  a  standing  posture,  and  the  walls  and  columns, 
and  other  architectural  details  of  the  particular  chamber 


Fin.  22. 


3(j  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

where  the  mummy  was  placed,  were  painted  with  rich 
ornament  and  inscriptions.  The  sarcophagus,  or  stone  box, 
in  which  the  mummy  was  sometimes  placed,  was  richly  orna- 
mented both  with  painting  and  carving  of  the  same  general 
character  as  on  the  walls,  and  it  is  from  examples  of  this 
kind  that  the  following  illustrations  are  taken. 

In  Fig.  23  is  a  painted  wall  ornament  from  the  temple  of 
Seti  I,  and  it  represents  the  sacred  bark,  the  ceremonies 
connected  with  which  were  an  exceedingly  complicated  but 
important  branch  of  the  religious  devotions  of  the  priests. 
This  device  frequently  appears  in  the  sculpture  and  paintings 


FIG.  23. 

of  the  tombs,  and  usually  represents  the  funeral  of  one  of 
the  gods.  Everything  is  arranged  in  a  most  orderly  man- 
ner, as  will  be  observed,  and  every  detail  is  placed  to  convey 
a  certain  significance.  It  would  be  impossible  here  to  go 
into  all  the  explanations  connected  with  Egyptian  hiero- 
glyphic ornament,  and  the  illustration  in  Fig.  23  is  given  to 
show  how  completely  the  walls  were  covered  with  an  illus- 
trated idea. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


37 


47.  The  Fret. — Fig.  24  is  a  fret  design,  sometimes 
called  a  labyrinth,  and  is  stated  by  some  to  have  been  sug- 
gested by  the  plan  of  a  building  known  as  the  labyrinth  that 
was  erected  in  ancient  Egypt  about  4000  B.  C.  This  was 


supposed  to  have  been  a  very  complicated  structure  of  many 
hundred  rooms,  out  of  which  it  was  practically  impossible 
for  one  to  find  his  way  without  the  assistance  of  a  guide. 
The  rosette  alternating  with  the  labyrinth  pattern  was  prob- 
ably derived  from  the  full-blown  lotus  flower.  This  orna- 
ment is  found  on  many 
mummy  cases,  and  is  even 
used  for  surface  decoration, 
for  it  can  be  repeated  in  any 
direction  simply  by  continu- 
ing the  lines,  as  shown  at  #, 
to  form  a  new  pattern  above 
and  below  similar  to  this  one. 

48.  It  may  be  said  here 
that  the  rosette  form  shown 
in  Fig.  24  is  but  one  of  many 
observed  in  Egyptian  orna- 
ment. In  Fig.  25  (a)  is 
shown  a  simple  circle  with 
an  inner  circle,  and  the  space 
between  them  is  divided 
by  straight  lines  into  eight 
equal  parts.  The  transition  from  this  form  to  the  form 
shown  at  (b)  consists  merely  of  a  notching  of  the  edge  of  the 


FIG.  25. 


38 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


outer  circle  where  the  lines  intersect  the  circumference; 
(c)  is  the  same  as  (b),  except  that  the  dividing  lines  are  made 
in  pairs,  thus  making  each  segment  independent  and  by 
itself.  From  (c)  to  (d)  the  segments  are  made  narrower, 
until  they  are  very  nearly  the  size  of  the  spaces  between 
them,  and  at  (c)  we  reach  the  extreme  limit  where  what 
might  be  considered  the  petals  of  the  floral  device  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  center  and  from  one  another  entirely,  and 
become  independent  elements  of  the  design.  Observe  that 
the  central  circle  has  been  becoming  smaller  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  device  from  (a)  to  (e),  and  the  design  has  worked 
itself  from  a  purely  geometrical  form  at  (a)  to  a  purely  floral 
form  at  (f)  and  back  again  to  a  purely  geometrical  form  at 
(c),  entirely  different  from  (a).  This  principle  should  be 
borne  in  mind,  as  it  is  of  much  importance  in  the  tracing  of 
the  Egyptian  style  in  European  art. 

49.  In  Fig.  26  is  shown  a  border  wherein  the  scroll  is 
made  use  of  simply  as  an  ornament,  in  distinction  from  its 
character,  as  emblematic  of  the  waves  of  the  Nile.  The 
lotus  also  appears  at  the  springing  of  each  scroll  line,  but, 
in  this  case,  purely  in  a  decorative  sense,  and  in  no  way 


FIG.  26. 

suggestive  of  a  hieroglyphic  record.  Below  is  a  stiff  conven- 
tional row  of  lotus  buds  and  blossoms,  so  arranged  as  to 
form  a  conventional  border  and  a  part  of  the  design  above, 
purely  for  decorative  purposes.  In  the  hieroglyphs,  the 
symbol  for  the  word  wafer  consisted  of  a  simple  jagged  line 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


39 


suggestive  of  waves,  as  shown  in  Fig.  27  (a).     This  symbol, 
when  used   under  certain   conditions,  was 
indicative   of   the  Nile   also,  and   in   some 
(a) 


of  the  hieroglyphic  ornament  it  is  elaborated  into  what  is 
called  the  wave  border  as  shown  at  (b). 

5O.     In  Fig.  28  are  shown  two  borders  where  the  lotus  is 
conventionalized,  very  much  on  the  lines  of  Fig.   15.     It  is 


(a) 


used  here  purely  for  decorative  purposes,  and  in  Fig.  28  (#), 
where   the  side  leaves  of  the  flower  intersect,  a  bud  is 


40 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


drawn  in  order  to  fill  up  the  intervening  space,  while  at  (b] 
the  flower  is  placed  in  a  horizontal  position  and  shows 
another  application  of  the  lotus  to  a  border  that  requires 
little  or  no  explanation,  simply  being"  the  conventional 
rendering  of  the  lotus  blossom  applied  in  repetition  on  the 
border  of  a  wall  surface,  and  completing  the  simple  geo- 
metrical forms  above  and  below. 

51.     Fig.   29  shows  an  application  of  the  scroll  without 
the  lotus,  while  below  is  a  simple  serrated  band,  the  type  of 


FIG.  20. 

which  is  suggestive  of  the  hieroglyphic  representation  of  the 
Nile,  though  its  derivation  from  this  origin  is  by  no  means 
certain.  These  few  borders  show  the  immense  variety  of 

detail  that  the  inventive  Egyp- 
tian secured  from  a  few  simple 
types.  When  he  carried  his 
design  further,  to  make  com- 
plete surface  decorations,  he 
did  not  complicate  his  designs 
by  adding  to  them  any  new 
forms. 

52.  Fig.  30  shows  a  wall 
decoration  from  a  tomb  at 
Thebes.  Here  the  scroll,  simi- 
lar to  that  used  in  Figs.  26 

FIG.  30.  i   „       . 

and  29,  is  applied  as  a  repeat- 
ing ornament  in  four  directions,  and,  in  the  space  enclosed 
between  the  lines  of  the  scroll,  conventional  representations 
of  the  lotus  petal  are  drawn,  thereby  simply  suggesting  the 


§3 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


41 


existence  of  an  idea  of  lotus  origin.  It  is  not  a  representa- 
tion of  the  flower,  nor  is  it  intended  to  be;  it  is  simply  a 
wall  decoration,  the  lines  of  which,  though  abstract,  owe 
their  origin  to  the  Egyptian  ever-present  association  of  the 
Nile  and  the  lotus  with  every- 
day details  of  importance. 

53.  In  Fig.  31  we  have  a 
border,  also  taken  from  a  tomb 
at  Thebes,  wherein  the  lotus  is 
used  in  a  most  conventional 
manner,  but,  at  the  same  time, 
not  greatly  removed  from  its 
original  type.  The  border  above 
and  below  is  a  simple  rendering 
of  bands  varied  sufficiently  from 

one     another     to    destroy    the 

.        .,,  FIG.  31. 

appearance   of  stripes  in  either 

direction,  and  at  the  same  time  so  arranged  as  to  blend  with 
the  whole  general  effect  and  not  attract  the  eye  to  any  cer- 
tain point. 


54. 

ration, 


The  Scroll. — The  use  of  the  scroll  as  a  wall  deco- 
repeating  only  in  two  directions,  is  shown  in  Fig.  32. 

Compare  this  figure  with 
Fig.  30  and  observe  that  the 
materials  used  to  create  the 
patterns  are  identical  in  both 
designs.  We  have  the  scroll 
and  the  lotus,  and  the  lines 
of  the  scroll  run  from  one 
end  of  the  pattern  to  the 
other,  and  between  the  lines 
the  space  is  filled  with  a 
design  from  the  lotus.  Not- 
withstanding this  fact,  could 
any  two  designs  be  more 
FIG.  vt.  unlike  ?  The  fact  that  the 


4->  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

scroll  lines  in  Fig.  32  extend  and  repeat  only  upwards  and 
downwards,  would  tend  to  give  the  pattern  the  appearance 
of  running  in  stripes  vertically ;  this  is,  to  a  certain  extent, 
offset  by  reversing  the  directions  of  the  scrolls,  giving  each 
a  letter  S  pattern,  thereby  preventing  any  vertical  lines  from 
appearing  one  over  the  other. 

As  an  additional  element  to  destroy  this  feeling  of  stripe, 
the  coloring  of  the  lotus  flower  has  been  so  arranged  that 
the  darkest  portions  will  all  blend  and  give  the  appearance 
of  stripes  in  a  horizontal  direction,  although  really  no  stripes 
exist  there.  Observe  that  in  each  reversed  lotus  flower,  the 
horizontal  line  that  cuts  it  off  at  the  bottom  of  the  petals  is 
about  on  a  level  with  the  lines  of  intersection  between  the 
individual  petals  of  the  next  flower,  and  this,  continued, 
gives  a  dark  stripe  alternating  with  a  lighter  stripe,  running 
in  a  horizontal  direction  throughout  the  pattern.  This  in 
effect  destroys  the  vertical  element.  The  same  result  is 
obtained  in  Fig.  30  by  the  changing  of  the  direction  of  the 
figures.  Each  individual  element  of  the  design  is  placed  at 
right  angles  to  the  one  above  and  below,  or  to  the  one  to 

the  left  and  right  of  it;  a  feel- 
ing of  continuity  is  thereby 
avoided. 

55.  Another  combination 
of  lines  based  on  the  lotus  is 
shown  in  Fig.  33,  wherein  the 
wall  surface  is  divided  by  a 
number  of  circles,  from  the 
center  of  each  of  which  spring 
four  ornamental  forms  whose 
outline  is  based  on  the  three 
outer  leaves  of  the  lotus. 
Another  pattern  based  on  a 
combination  of  the  circle  and 

the  square  is  shown  in  Fig.  34.  The  wall  surface  is  cov- 
ered with  tangent  circles,  exactly  as  in  the  previous  case, 
but  from  the  centers  of  these  circles  spring  four  leaves  in 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


43 


vertical  and  horizontal  directions,  thereby  suggesting  rectan- 
gular forms  connecting  the  centers  of  the  circles.  Other 
foliated  forms,  in  the  quadrants  of  the  circles  embraced  by 
each  pair  of  these  leaves,  outline  the  three  petals  of  a  lotus 


FIG.  34. 

as  before,  in  each  quarter  of  the  circle,  while  the  spaces  out- 
side of  the  circumference  of  the  circles  are  ornamented  with 
a  figure  smaller  than,  but  almost  identical  with,  the  one 
springing  from  the  centers. 

A  careful  analysis  of  Figs.  33  and  34  will  again  show  that 
the  elements,  types,  materials,  and  forms  of  both  figures  are 
as  near  identical  as  it  is  possible  for  any  two  patterns  to  be, 
and  yet  no  two  designs  could 
be  more  unlike  in  appearance. 


5(>.  Referring  now  to 
Fig.  35,  we  have  a  wall  deco- 
ration composed  of  the  wave 
lines  associated  with  the  Nile, 
running  in  different  direc- 
tions. Trace  any  one  of 
these  lines  out  and  you  will 

see  that  it  simply  runs  across  the  pattern  in  a  di; 
direction  from  top  to  bottom,  or  from  bottom  to  top. 
line  that  intersects  with  it  runs  practically  at  right 


FIG.  35. 


igonal 
The 


44 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


to  it  and  intersects  at  every  wave.  The  small  irregular 
figures  thus  enclosed  in  the  wave  line  are  colored  distinctly 
in  alternate  stripes,  and  a  contrasting  figure  identical  with 
the  figure  drawn  outside  the  circumferences  in  Fig.  34  is 
then  stamped  in  them. 

57.  Fig.  36  might  be  at  first  considered  a  double  render- 
ing of  Fig.  35,  but,  strictly  speaking,  such  is  not  the  case. 
The  heavy  black  lines  of  Fig.  36  in  general  direction  run 
vertically  and  horizontally,  and  the  spaces  enclosed  by  each 
pair  of  verticals  are  painted  alternate  colors,  the  effect  of 

which  is  not  to  give  that  of 
stripes,  but  of  a  general  blend- 
ing of  wall  surface.  Observe 
that  the-  colored  or  shaded 
portions  of  the  pattern  are 
broad,  alternating  with  a  con- 
necting link  of  narrow  color, 
while  opposite  this  connecting 
link,  on  each  side,  are  the  broad 
portions  of  the  contrasting 

color.  A  study  of  Fig.  36  in  comparison  with  Fig.  30  will 
show  that  the  effort  to  prevent  continuity  or  the  effect  of  a 
stripe  is  the  same  in  each  case,  and  the  principle  by  which 
this  appearance  is  prevented  is  identical  in  each  case,  though 
the  patterns  themselves  are  utterly  unlike  in  principle,  type, 
and  manner  of  execution. 

58.  In  Fig.  37,  taken  from  a  tomb  at  Thebes,  we  have  a 
combination  of  the  scroll  and  the  lotus  as  the  running  ele- 
ments of  the  design,  and  the  scarabseus  and  lotus  rosette  as 
surface  elements  or  inlays.     In  this  design,  five  sets  of  scroll 
lines  spring  from  each  center,  the  two  tipper  ones  branching 
out  to  form  the  top  of  an  enclosing  panel  and  to  form  the 
continuity  from  one  scroll  to  another,   while  of   the   three 
lower  ones,  one  connects  in  a  horizontal  direction  the  twu 
lower  scrolls,  and  the  other  two  serve  to  form  a  bottom  of  a 
panel  and  preserve  the  line  of  continuity  to  the  scroll  below. 


FIG.  36. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


45 


Simple  as  this  arrangement  is,  it  illustrates  the  ingenuity 
of  the  designer.  From  every  springing  point,  the  three 
characteristic  petals  of  the  lotus  flower  are  exhibited,  while 
from  the  bottom  of  each  pair 
of  scrolls  the  spreading  petals 
of  the  full-blown  blossom  are 
used  to  fill  the  space.  In  each 
alternate  panel,  both  vertically 
and  horizontally,  the  scara- 
baeus  appears  in  its  character- 
istic hieroglyphic  form,  and  in 
each  alternate  panel  between 
is  a  rosette  based  on  the  lotus 
blossom. 


FIG.  37. 


59.  It  will  be  unnecessary 
to  describe  all  the  character- 
istics of  the  design  in  Fig.  38 ;  the  student  will  simply  observe 
that  the  scroll  here  consists  of  but  four  springing  lines,  and 
these  are  apparently  made  to  serve  the  same  purpose  as  five 
in  the  previous  case.  The  panels  enclosed  between  the  lines 

of  the  scroll  are  of  a  different 
character,  and,  though  filled 
with  devices  similar  to  the 
ones  in  Fig.  37,  the  general 
appearance  of  the  design  is 
totally  different.  We  have 
one  element  in  this  design, 
however,  that  differs  from 
any  of  the  previous  ones  dis- 
cussed, and  makes  a  portion 
of  it  belong  to  the  second 
class  of  Egyptian  ornament, 
heretofore  described  ;  that 

r  IG.  So. 

is,  the  hieroglyphic  represen- 
tation of  a  fact,  the  little  devices  in  alternate  spaces  being 
hieroglyphic  writings  descriptive  of  some  of  the  acts  and 
doings  connected  with  the  life  of  the  person  to  whom  the 


40  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

tomb  was  erected.  All  this  ornament  was  richly  colored, 
and  the  effect  of  it  on  the  walls  was  due  as  much  to  its 
system  of  coloring  as  to  the  design  itself. 

60.  It  is  impossible  here  to  express  in  each  case,  without 
means  of  color,  the  characteristic  appearance  of  each  design, 
but  the  main  point  is  to  exhibit  the  ingenuity  and  invention 
of   the  Egyptian  artist  in  his  portrayal  of  a  multitude  of 
different  designs,  all  based  on  exactly  the  same  idea,   and 
using  less  than  half  a  dozen  different  forms.     In  spite  of 
their  simplicity,  a  careful  study  of  each  one  of  the  designs 
here  illustrated  will  always  bring  forth  a  new  point  so  subtle 
that,  though  when  once  discovered  it  appears  most  promi- 
nent, it  has  for  a  long  time  previous  remained  undiscovered. 

61.  Egyptian  Coloring. — In  general  effect,  Egyptian 
ornament  was  brilliant  and  many-colored.     The  reason  for 
this  must  be  borne  in  mind:  the  interiors  of  the  Egyptian's 
temples  and  tombs  were    pervaded  by  a  deep  sepulchral 
gloom  fittingly  symbolizing  the  mysterious  character  of  his 
religious  belief,  and,  in  order  that  the  decorations  on  the 
walls  should  stand  out  amidst  this  gloom,  it  was  necessary 
that  the  brightest  of  colors  should  be  used,  or  the  decoration 
would  fade  into  insignificance. 

While  the  Egyptian  ornament  may  be  said  to  be  thoroughly 
polychromatic,  there  are  many  cases  where  it  depended  as 
much  for  its  expression  on  carving  as  on  painting.  How- 
ever, Egyptian  ornament  may  be  considered,  in  a  multitude 
of  cases,  as  being  painted  ornament.  In  their  rendering,  the 
Egyptians  used  no  shades  or  shadows,  and  laid  their  colors 
in  flat  tints  only;  yet  they  found  no  difficulty  in  conveying 
to  the  mind  the  identity  of  each  object  they  desired  to  repre- 
sent, without  a  suggestion  of  shade  or  shadow. 

62.  The  palette  of  the  Egyptian  artist  contained  seven 
depressions  for  seven  colors,  arranged  in  the  following  order : 
white,    yellow,   green,   blue,   red,    dark  brown,   and   black. 
There  were  two  kinds  of  yellow — a  bright  yellow  and  yellow 
ocher.     There  were  three  kinds  of  blue — an  azure  blue,  a 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  47 

greenish  blue,  and  a  dark  blue.  The  reds  were  made  of 
burnt  ocher,  and  the  general  tone  of  Egyptian  ornament 
seems  to  have  inclined  more  to  yellow  than  to  any  other 
color.  Green  was  used  less  than  red,  yellow,  and  blue. 
The  Egyptian  oriental  blues  are  more  greenish  in  hue  than 
a  strictly  normal  blue,  and  their  reds  partook  of  an  orange 
tinge.  They  appreciated  the  fact  that  colors  were  affected 
much  in  their  appearance  when  in  juxtaposition  to  one 
another,  and  they  made  use  of  this  detail  to  emphasize  or 
detract  from  the  strength  of  some  particular  hue. 


ASSYRIAN  ORNAMENT. 

63.  Development. — Although  the  early  architecture  of 
Western   Asia   is   of   little  importance  so   far  as  its  direct 
influence  on  the  styles  of  later  periods  is  concerned,  it  must 
be  given  a  certain  amount  of  consideration  in  order  that  the 
development  and  growth  of  certain  subsequent  forms  may 
be  properly  understood  under  the  different  conditions. 

64.  The  ornament  of  Assyria  was   probably  borrowed 
from  Egypt,  as  there  are  many  points  of  resemblance  in  the 
two  styles.     The  sculpture  of  the  Assyrians  seems  to  have 
been  a  development  of  that  of  the  Egyptians,  but  descended 
from  it  rather  than  advanced  in  scale  of  perfection.     Egyp- 
tian  sculpture   degenerated   toward  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century  B.  C. ,  as  it  expressed  an  unnatural  swelling  of  the 
limbs  that  was  at  first  but  lightly  indicated  and  gradually 
became  almost  exaggerated — the  conventional  having  been 
abandoned  for   an   imperfect   attempt   at   the  natural.      In 
Assyrian   sculpture,  the  attempt  was  carried  still  further, 
and,  while  the  general  arrangement  of  a  subject  and  the  pose 
of  a  single  figure  was  still  conventional,  an   attempt   was 
made  to  express  the  muscles  of  the  limbs  and  the  rotundity 
of  the  flesh  to  an  extent  that  destroyed  all  conventionalism. 
In  all  art,  this  is  a  symptom  of  decline.     Nature  should  be 
idealized,  not  copied. 


43  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

65.  Assyrian  ornament  is  not  based  altogether  on  the 
same  types  as  the  Egyptian,  but  is  represented  in  the  same 
way.  In  both  styles,  the  ornaments  appear  in  relief,  as  well 
as  painted,  in  the  nature  of  hieroglyphic  diagrams.  With 
the  exception  of  the  pineapple,  and  the  adaptation  of  the 
Egyptian  lotus,  Assyrian  ornament  does  not  seem  to  be  based 
on  any  natural  type,  and  the  natural  laws  of  radiation  and 


FIG.  39. 

tangential  curvature  that  we  find  in  Egyptian  ornament  are, 
in  the  Assyrian,  observed  more  as  a  traditional  or  borrowed 
idea  rather  than  an  instinct  of  the  people  themselves. 
Fig.  39  shows  an  example  of  Assyrian  sculpture  supposed  to 
illustrate  a  scene  where  the  king  on  horseback  is  hunting, 
attended  by  his  servants  and  arrow  bearer.  The  pose  of  the 
figure  and  the  character  of  the  work  is  strongly  suggestive 
of  Egyptian  origin,  but  the  attempt  to  express  in  stone  the 
muscular  roundness  of  the  limbs  and  other  parts  is  indicative 
of  a  decline  in  art. 

66.     The  Assyrian  religion  differed  widely  from  that  of 
the    Egyptians,   and,    though  their  combinations   of    forms 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


49 


resembled,  somewhat,  certain  of  the  Egyptian  deities,  the 
style  in  which  they  sculptured  them  was  below  the  standard 
of  art  and  practice  in  Egypt. 

Fig.  40  is  an  example  of  this  work  representing  the  winged 
deity  Asshur,  in  which  may  be  seen  the  excessive  effort  to 


FIG.  40. 

represent  the  rotundity  of  muscular  developments.  The 
attempt  to  represent  the  muscular  characteristics  of  this 
figure  is  exceedingly  inartistic,  and,  though  the  attempt  to 
present  an  appearance  of  power  and  strength  is  well  carried 
out,  it  is  done  with  much  less  delicacy  and  refinement  than 
we  would  expect  if  the  work  were  an  example  of  Egyptian 
art.  Asshur  was  the  supreme  deity  in  the  Assyrian  group 
of  gods,  and  in  the  conception  of  his  form  there  is  much  that 
is  suggestive  of  Egyptian  origin.  The  hawk  head  and  wings 


50 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


are  surely  borrowed  from  Egypt,  and  the  pose  of  the  body 
and  limbs  is  strongly  suggestive  of  Egyptian  ideas.  The 
position  of  the  hands  seems  to  be  repeated  in  nearly  every 
example  of  Assyrian  ornament  where  the  figure  represents  a 
deity,  and  is  similar  to  certain  Egyptian  productions  of  the 
kind,  except  that  the  limbs  are  clumsy  and  the  molding 
possesses  much  less  refinement. 

67.     In  Fig.  41  is  shown  the  Assyrian  rendering  of  the 
Egyptian  lotus,  and,  in  fact,  this  border,  which  comes  from 


FIG.  41. 


FIG.  42. 


Persepolisin  Assyria,  might  easily  be  considered  an  attempt  to 
copy  the  example  of  Egyptian  ornament  shown  in  Fig.  28  (a). 
Fig.  42  shows  another  example  of  lotus  ornament  from  the 
same  city  in  Assyria,  wherein  the  detail  is  almost  identi- 
cal with  Fig.  41,  but  the  lotus  bud  between  the  two  blos- 
soms is  replaced  by  a  device  repre- 
senting the  pineapple  —  a  fruit  that 
was  sacred  in  Assyrian  art.  The  close 
resemblance  of  these  forms  to  those 
seen  in  Egypt  is  almost  indisputable 

evidence     that     they 

were    derived     from 

the    latter     country, 

and  the  rosette  form 

shown     in     Fig.    43, 

while  it  appears  fre- 
quently    in    borders 

of      Assyrian      orna- 
ment, must  undoubtedly  have  been  developed  or  adapted 
from  the  Egyptian  device   shown  in  Fig.  25  (d).      A  still 


Fir,.  13. 


FIG.  44. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


51 


cruder  adaptation  of  the  Egyptian  lotus  to  carved  ornament 
in  Assyrian  work  is  seen  in  Fig.  44,  wherein  the  surface  of 
the  petals  is  simply  indented  in  a  harsh,  crude  manner, 
and  the  outline  is  carved  into  seven  pointed  terminations 
of  the  leaves.  The  use  of  this  ornament  in  borders,  in 
combination  with  another  crude  ornament,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  45,  wherein  the  outline  of  the  lotus-derived  figure 
shows  a  little  more  refinement,  as  its  lines  are  more  grace- 
fully curved,  but  where  the  connecting  lines  between  it 


FIG.  45. 


and  the  interposed  device  are  arcs  of  a  circle,  making 
the  entire  composition  crude  and  inartistic.  The  circu- 
lar forms  with  the  three-leaved  blossom  on  top  may  be 
representative  of  pomegranates,  the  designs  of  which  were 
used  largely  in  Assyrian  decoration.  However,  it  is  of  little 
importance  in  itself  what  types  were  used  in  this  art.  The 
lotus  and  rosette  were  undoubtedly  borrowed  from  Egypt; 
the  latter,  both  as  shown  in  Fig.  43  and  modified  in 
Fig.  45,  are  easily  traceable  to  designs  seen  on  the  banks 
of  the  Nile. 

68.  These  few  ornaments  will  suffice  to  trace  the 
art  of  Egypt  into  Asia  Minor  and  show  in  subsequent 
styles  how  their  altered  introduction  into  European  coun- 
tries was  able  to  harmonize  with  the  style  already 
existing. 


52  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 

CLASSIC  ORNAMENT. 


GREEK    ORNAMENT. 

69.  Greece  and  Egypt  Compared. — Before  entering 
on  the  study  of  the  characteristics  of  Greek  ornament,  let  us 
for  a  moment  compare  the   conditions  and  surroundings  of 
Greece   with    those    of    Egypt.      Although    modern    Egypt 
covers   a   considerable    extent    of   country,    ancient    Egypt 
included  only  the  section  that  bordered  on  the  Nile.     In  fact, 
as  we  have   already  suggested,  it  may  be   considered  simply 
as  the  country  that  was  watered  by  the  annual  inundations  of 
the  Nile.      The  climate  here  was  mild,  there  being  but  two 
seasons — spring    and    summer — and    there    was   very  little 
variety  in  the  daily  life  of  the  inhabitants,  except  what  may 
have  been  experienced  in  the  celebration  of  some  national  or 
religious  festival. 

70.  Greece,  on  the  contrary,  presents  entirely  different 
conditions.     It  is  on  the  sea,  and  throughout  its  long  broken 
shores,  the  tide  ebbs  and    flows  and  penetrates  far  inland 
through  the  long  clefts  in  its  coast.      Greece  has  many  moun- 
tains, too,   and  this   affected  her  climate  inasmuch  as  they 
served  as  watersheds,  carrying  the  rains  down  and  fertilizing 
the  valleys.     The  country,  however,  is  far  enough  south  to 
receive  a  tropical  sun,  and,  although  its  climate  ranges  from 
severe -cold  in  winter  to  a  fierce  heat  in  summer,  the  majority 
of  the  time  its  temperature  is  warm  and  comfortable. 

71.  Character  of  the  Greeks. — The  people  of  Greece 
were  brave,  active,  and  athletic ;  their  Olympian  games  were 
world  renowned.     Their  bodily  culture  was  extremely  fine, 
but  did  not  compare  with  their  intellect,  which  was  more 
developed  than  that  of  any  other  nation.      The  Greek  lan- 
guage is  rare  and  complete  in  structure,  and  Greek  literature 
is  unsurpassed.     The   Greek  religion  was  polytheistic,  but 
the  Greeks  did  not  devote  as  much  attention  to  the  worship 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  53 

of  their  gods  as  did  the  Egyptians.  True,  they  erected  vast 
temples  and  costly  monuments  to  Athena,  Apollo,  Zeus, 
Erectheus,  and  other  deities,  and  these  temples,  exquisite 
in  form,  proportion,  simplicity,  and  perfect  harmony,  are 
examples  of  the  finest  architecture  that  the  world  has  ever 
seen.  Notwithstanding  this  mark  of  reverence  to  their  gods, 
the  Greeks  did  not  embody  into  every  branch  of  their  art 
some  detail  or  reminder  of  their  religious  duties  and  inclina- 
tions as  did  the  artists  of  Egypt.  The  form  of  the  Greek's 
worship  was,  in  some  respects,  almost  as  complicated  as  that 
of  the  Egyptian,  but  his  intellect  seemed  to  be  more 
advanced  and  he  was  bound  less  by  a  superstitious  interest 
in  the  future  condition  of  his  soul,  and  his  fancies  naturally 
sought  ideas  that  in  themselves  were  beautiful  to  think  of 
and  to  look  at,  rather  than  suggestive  of  gloom  and  forebo- 
dings concerning  an  uncertain  future  existence. 

The  development  of  Greek  art  then  takes  place  along  an 
entirely  different  line  from  that  of  Egypt,  and  though  it  goes 
as  directly  and  intelligently  to  a  point  of  climax,  the  result- 
ing forms  are  totally  different  in  their  character,  meaning, 
and  influence  on  subsequent  styles. 

72.  We  have  seen  how  the  Egyptian  artists  derived 
their  ideas  for  ornamental  design  directly  from  nature,  that 
their  types  were  few,  and  that  they  remained  unchanged 
throughout  the  entire  course  of  Egyptian  civilization,  except 
in  the  degree  of  perfection  of  execution;  and,  in  this  detail, 
the  greatest  perfection  existed  in  the  most  antique  examples. 

We  have  studied  that  the  Assyrian  was  a  borrowed  style 
and  possessed  no  characteristics  of  an  inspired  art,  but 
appeared  to  have  been  suggested  by  the  art  of  Egypt,  and 
that  the  suggestions  borrowed  from  the  Egyptian  style  were 
during  its  decline,  and  the  Assyrian  artist,  instead  of  advan- 
cing on  the  style,  carried  that  decline  still  further.  With 
Greek  art,  however,  we  find  a  vast  difference.  It  was 
undoubtedly  borrowed  from  both  Egypt  and  Assyria,  but 
was  developed  in  an  entirely  new  direction,  and,  imre- 
stricted  by  any  complicated  religious  laws,  as  both  Egyptian 


54  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

and  Assyrian  art  seem  to  have  been,  the  Greek  adoption 
rose  rapidly  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  Though  the 
influence  of  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  art  can  be  traced  in 
many  details  of  Greek  designs,  those  influences  are  entirely 
subordinated  to  the  Greek  feeling  applied  in  their  introduc- 
tion. Neither  the  art  of  Egypt  or  Assyria  can  be  considered 
to  play  an  important  part  in  the  styles  of  subsequent  gener- 
ations, but  the  art  of  Greece  pervades  all  subsequent  history. 

73.  It  must  be  considered,   in  the  study  of  the  Greek 
styles,  that  the  remarkable  development  was  due  to  their 
introduction  into  Greece  at  a  critical  period  of  the  art  devel- 
opment of  that  country.      Greek  art  carried  the  perfection 
of  pure  form  to  a  point  that  has  never  since  been  reached, 
and  the  abundant  remains  of  Greek  ornament  compel  us  to 
believe  that  refined  taste  was  universal,  and  that  the  country 
was  overflowing  with  skilled  hands  and  minds  so  trained  as 
to  enable  them  to  execute  these  beautiful  ornaments  with 
unerring  precision  and  truth. 

The  beauty  of  Greek  ornament,  however,  lies  almost 
exclusively  in  its  symmetry  and  form.  It  is  lacking  in  one 
of  the  greatest  charms  that  should  always  accompany  orna- 
ment, viz. ,  symbolism  ;  and,  despite  the  pleasure  we  experi- 
ence in  its  beautiful  gradations  of  form  and  color,  Greek 
ornament  is  meaningless,  purely  decorative,  never  repre- 
sentative, and  in  few  cases  it  is,  in  the  stricter  sense,  hardly 
even  constructive. 

74.  Architecture. — In    the    architecture,  the   various 
members    of    a    Greek    monument    presented    exquisitely 
designed  surfaces  to  receive  ornament,  which  at  first  was 
simply  painted  and  in  later  times  carved  and  painted,  but 
the  ornament  formed  no  such  essential  part  of  the  construc- 
tion   as   did    that   of    the    Egyptians.      It    could    often   be 
removed  and  the  structure  remain  unchanged. 

On  the  Corinthian  capital  (Fig.  50),  the  ornament  is 
applied  to  the  surface  and  is  hardly  constructed  as  a  part 
of  the  capital  itself.  Remove  the  scrolls  and  foliated 


56  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT,  §  3 

ornament  and  there  still  remains  sufficient  substance  and 
material  for  the  pier  to  carry  out  its  purpose.  On  the  Egyp- 
tian capital,  however,  Fig.  16,  the  whole  capital  is  an  orna- 
ment, and  to  remove  any  portion  of  it  would  be  to  destroy  both 
the  ornament  and  structural  purpose  of  the  column  itself. 

75.  Sculpture. — In  addition  to  the  skill  of  the  Greek 
artist  as  a  designer,   his  unerring  truth   in  the  use  of  his 
chisel  renders  the  work  of  the  earlier  periods  remarkably 
interesting   to   us,   but    the   monumental    sculpture    of    the 
Greeks  frequently  went  beyond  the  bounds  of  ornament. 
For  instance,  in  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  Fig.  46,  though 
composed  of  a  series  of  groups  of  draped  figures,  the  orna- 
ment was  so  far  above  the  eye  that  it  became  a  mere  diagram 
— an  ornamental  band  around  the  top  of  the  building,  the 
beauties  of  which   are    simply  astonishing  when    observed 
more  closely.     Every  detail  of  each  of  the  panels  was  as 
minutely  wrought  as  though  it  were  to  receive  the  closest 
inspection.     The  folds  of  the  garments  and  the  molding  of 
the  limbs,  even  on  the  side  away  from  the  eye,  that  could 
never  be  seen  unless  the  panel  was  removed  from  the  monu- 
ment itself,  are  as  carefully  modeled  as  those  most  prom- 
inently in  sight. 

Conscientious  as  this  treatment  may  appear  to  be,  sys- 
tematic and  honest  as  is  the  execution  of  a  design  that  was 
dedicated  to  one  of  their  gods,  we  are  bound  to  consider 
this  an  abuse  of  means  as  a  work  of  art  design,  and  that  the 
Greeks  were,  in  this  respect,  inferior  to  the  Egyptians, 
whose  system  of  broad  conventionalized  ornament  for  mon- 
umental sculpture  served  its  purpose  to  better  effect. 

76.  Representative  Types. — The  examples  of   Greek 
representative  ornament  are  few.      In  the  earlier  wall  paint- 
ing, there  is  a  wavy  ornament — a  fret,  somewhat  similar  to 
the  Egyptian,  used  to  distinguish  water  from  land — and  a 
few  conventional  renderings  of  trees,  but  nothing  of  impor- 
tance was  done  in  this  line  in  the  later  history  of  Greek  art. 
In  the  decorative  ornament  of   the  Greek  vases,   however, 
there  is  abundant  material  to  assure  us  that  we  have  examples 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  57 

of  every  type  of  Greek  ornament  in  all  its  phases.      The 

types  are  few,  but,  in  their  conventional  rendering,  are  so 

far  removed  that  it  is  difficult  to  recognize  any  attempt  at 

imitation.     An  examination  of  the  wall  paintings  and  vases 

leads   to  the  belief  that   the   forms 

of  the  leaves   of  the  Greek  flowers      A  ^ 

are  due  more  to  the  limitations  of 

brush  work  than  to  any  direct  imita-       F   i 

tion  of  the  natural  flower.  I  I 

The   six  forms   shown  in  Fig.  47  FIG  47 

constitute  about  all  the  leaf  strokes 

that  are  found  throughout  Greek  ornament,  but  these  six 
forms  were  applied  to  a  variety  of  purposes,  the  extent  of 
which  is  almost  past  belief. 

77.  The  Three  Great  Laws  of  Nature.  —  That  the 
Greek  artists  carefully  observed  the  principle  on  which  cer- 
tain plants  grew,  and  carried  that  principle  out  conscien- 
tiously in  the  execution  of  their  designs,  cannot  be  doubted. 
They  were  close  observers  of  nature,  and  although  they  did 
not  copy  or  attempt  to  imitate  or  make  true  portraits  of  any 
natural  forms,  they  never  violated  a  natural  principle.  The 
three  great  laws  of  nature — radiation  from  the  parent  stem, 
the  proportionate  distribution  of  areas,  and  the  tangential 
curvature  of  the  lines — are  always  obeyed;  and  it  is  the 
unerring  perfection  with  which  they  are  carried  out  in  the 
most  humble  works,  as  well  as  those  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance, that  fills  us  with  astonishment  at  the  conscientious 
scruples  of  the  Greek  artist. 

Before  we  analyze  examples  of  Greek  ornament,  we  must 
first  consider  the  architecture.  The  Greek,  like  the  Egyp- 
tian, spanned  his  architectural  opening  with  a  lintel,  and 
though  the  width  of  the  opening  was,  like  that  of  the  Egyp- 
tian, governed  by  the  length  of  the  lintel  that  could  be  con- 
veniently quarried,  the  Greek's  knowledge  of  statics  and 
his  highly  intellectual  mind  rendered  him  more  inclined  to 
develop  artistic  proportions,  between  the  support  and  the 
material  supported,  than  is  found  in  any  Egyptian  work. 


58 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


§3 


78.  Orders  of  Design. — As  before  stated,  the  capitals 
of  the  Egyptian  columns  were  of  but  three  styles — the  lotus 
bud,  the  lotus  blossom,  and  the  palm.  These  were  varied 

more  or  less  in  different  locali- 
ties, but  all  being  the  devel- 
opment of  a  single  principle, 
can  hardly  be  called  different 
orders  of  design  from  one 
another.  In  the  Greek,  how- 
ever, we  have  three  distinct 
orders,  or  systems,  of  design, 
the  distinguishing  character- 
istic of  each  being  the  capital 
of  the  column ;  these  orders 

are  the  Doric,  whose  column  is  topped  with  a  capital  con- 
sisting of  a  simple  slab  over  a  thumb-shaped  molding,  as 
shown  in  Figs.  46  and  48;  the  Ionic,  whose  capital  consists 
of  a  pair  of  scrolls, 
or  volutes,  supported 
upon  a  thumb  mold- 
ing similar  to  a  dimin- 
ished form  of  the  Doric, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  49  ; 
and  the  Corinthian 
order,  Fig.  50,  whose 
capital  has  been  before 
referred  to.  In  the 
last  named,  the  top  of 
the  column  is  swelled 
out  into  a  bell  shape, 
not  unlike  the  palm 
column  of  Egypt,  but  is 
decorated  with  leaves 
and  vines  and  scrolls, 
and  other  forms  based 
on  types  from  the 

vegetable  world.     The  volute,  or  scroll,  of  the  Ionic  capital 
some  authorities  endeavor  to  trace  back  to  the  lotus  blossom; 


/ 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


50 


other  authorities  claim  that  its  origin  is  in  Assyria  or  Persia, 
certain  forms  of  column  there  being  treated  with  the  scroll. 
However,  it  matters  little  whence  came  the  idea,  inasmuch 


FIG.  50. 

as  it  is  so  elaborated  as  to  bear  scarcely  any  resemblance 
to  its  original  type.  The  bottom,  or  foot,  of  each  of  these 
columns  differs  somewhat  from  the  Egyptian  type  also. 

79.  Bases. — It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Egyptian 
column  was  usually  roimded  off  so  that  it  was  smaller  at  the 
bottom,  and  painted  or  carved,  representative  of  the  root  of 
a  growing  plant.  The  Doric  column  sits  flat  on  the  ground 


60  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

or  plinth  without  any  molded  base  whatsoever,  and  its  sides 
are  cut  in  channels,  or  grooves,  each  pair  of  which  meet  in 
an  edge,  or  arris,  that  extends  all  the  way  to  the  capital. 
These  may  have  been  derived  from  the  reedings  of  the 
Egyptian  columns,  imitative  of  the  reeds  of  the  growing 
plant.  In  fact,  it  has  been  practically  conceded  by  nearly 
all  authorities  that  the  Doric  column  is  a  development  of 
a  certain  form  of  Egyptian  column;  but,  as  said  before, 
though  the  Greeks  borrowed  ideas  from  the  Egyptians,  they 
carried  them  to  a  higher  state  of  perfection,  and  in  nothing 
is  this  more  evident  than  in  the  columnar  elements  of  their 
architecture. 

The  bases  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  columns  are  regu- 
larly molded,  and  though  it  is  difficult  to  trace  any  direct 
origin  to  the  system  of  moldings  that  appear  so  uniformly 
on  these  bases,  it  is  simply  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  the 
fact  that,  in  the  three  orders  of  Greece,  two  of  the  columns 
possess  bases,  and  one  of  them — the  Doric — is  without  that 
detail.  The  mathematical  proportions  of  these  orders  we 
will  consider  later,  when  we  can  compare  them  with  their 
Roman  modifications. 

80.  Classic  Moldings. — In    Greek    architecture   all   of 
the  moldings  are  profiled  on  the  curve  of  some  conic  section. 

Before  analyzing  the  outlines  of  these  Greek  moldings  and 
the  methods  of  contouring  them,  let  us  first  give  our  atten- 
tion to  the  conic  sections  from  which  they  seem  to  have  been 
derived. 

81.  In   Fig.  51  are  shown  two  similar  cones  a  be  and 
adc,  which  are  in  contact  with  each  other  at  their  vertexes 
a,  and  whose  bases  b  c  and  de  are  circular  and  at  right  angles 
to  the  axes  af  and  af.      If  either  of  the  cones  be  intersected 
or  cut  by  a  plane,  which  is  parallel  to  one  of  its  elements  or 
sides,  as  be,  the  line  of  intersection  will  be  a. parabola,  as  at 
ghi\  but,  if,  instead  of  being  parallel  to  the   side  be,  the 
cutting  plane  makes  an  angle  with  it,  the  curve  formed  by 
the  intersection  will  be  either  an  ellipse   or  a  hyperbola, 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


61 


according  to  the  angle.  It  will  be  an  ellipse  when  the  cut- 
ting plane  is  more  nearly  parallel  with  the  base  of  the  cone 
than  it  was  in  the  case  of  the  parabola,  and  passes  through 
both  sides  asat/£;  and  the  line  of  intersection  will  be  a 
hyperbola  when  the  cutting 
plane  is  more  nearly  perpen- 
dicular to  the  base  than  it  was 
in  the  case  of  the  parabola,  as 
shown  at  /  m  n  and  op  q. 

82.  In    the    case    of  the 
hyperbola,     the      plane      will 
always  cut  both  cones,  thereby 
giving    two    branches    to    the 
curve,  and  these  branches  will 
be  farther  apart  as  the  cutting 
plane  recedes  from  the  axes  of 
the   cones.      The    nearer    the 
plane  approaches  the  axes  of 
the   cones,  the  straighter  will 
become  the  sides  of  the  inter- 
secting curve,  and  as  the  plane 

recedes  from  the  axes,  the  rounder  and  nearer  circular  will 
be  the  intersection,  though  no  matter  how  closely  the  curve 
of  intersection  may  approach  the  arc  of  a  circle,  it  can  never 
become  absolutely  circular  in  form. 

The  hyperbola  becomes  two  intersecting  straight  lines 
when  the  plane  passes  through  the  vertex;  these  two  lines 
are  most  divergent  when  the  plane  is  parallel  with  the  axes 
of  the  cones,  and  gradually  become  closer  together  as  the 
plane  approaches  a  position  parallel  with  the  side  of  the 
cone,  where  the  hyperbola  reaches  its  limit  in  a  straight  line. 
This  straight  line  is  the  common  limit  of  both  hyperbola  and 
parabola,  as  any  deviation  from  it  will  produce  one  or  the  other 
of  these  curves,  according  to  the  direction  of  that  deviation. 

83.  As  the  plane  of   the  ellipse  becomes  more  nearly 
parallel  to  the  base  of  the  cone,  the  ellipse  approaches  the 


FIG.  51. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


form  of  a  circle,  which  it  finally  becomes,  when  the  axis  of 
the  cone  and  the  cutting  plane  are  perpendicular  to  each 
other,  as  at  r  st,  and  as  the  plane  of  the  ellipse  approaches 
the  vertex  of  the  cone  the  ellipse  diminishes  in  size  until  it 
reaches  its  limit  in  a  point.  From  a  point  to  a  circle,  then, 
is  the  limit  of  curvature  of  the  ellipse. 

84.  In  Geometrical  Drawing,  methods  are  given  in 
examples  '23  and  25  for  drawing  an  ellipse  and  a  parabola  of 
any  desired  proportions,  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  add  here 
the  method  of  contouring  the  hyperbola. 

To  draw  a  hyperbola  of  a  given  width  and  height,  the  axis 
a  /',  Fig.  52,  is  laid  down  perpendicular  to  the  width  c  d,  in 
the  same  manner  as  for  the  parabola,  and  the  rectangle  cdfe 
is  constructed  with  cd  equal  to  the  base  of  the  hyperbola, 

and  the  height  ce  equal  to  the 
axis  a  b.  Divide  one  half  the 
base  and  also  each  side  into  any 
number  of  equal  parts,  and  con- 
nect the  points  of  division  on  the 
sides  with  the  vertex  a  by  means 
of  the  lines  a  1,  a  2,  a  3,  etc.  The 
points  of  division  on  the  base  are 
connected  by  lines  to  some  point  x 
on  the  line  of  the  axis  a  b  extended ; 
the  points  of  intersection  of  these 
two  series  of  lines  will  determine 
points  on  the  hyperbolic  curve, 
taking  the  lines  in  the  order  as 
they  recede  from  point  c;  x  can 
be  at  any  distance  above  a,  and 
the  curved  lines  ac  and  ad  will 
approach  more  nearly  the  curves 
of  the  parabola  as  the  point  x  becomes  more  remote.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  nearer  the  point  x  is  to  the  vertex  «, 
the  more  a  c  and  a  d  will  approximate  to  a  straight  line, 
and  when  points  x  and  a  coincide,  the  line  ac  will  be  a 
straight  line. 


12345 

FIG.  52. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


85.  To  draw  a  tangent  to  any  point  of  the  hyperbola, 
first  draw  a  line  from  the  desired  point  g  perpendicular  to 
the  axis  a  b,  and  on  the  extended  axis  ax,  describe  the  semi- 
circle akx,  with  a  radius  la  equal  to  \  ax\  then,  with  a 
radius  equal  to  \  Ih,  describe  the  semicircle  /  k  It  intersecting 
akx  at  k\  draw  ki  per- 
pendicular to  a  x,  and  __f I  1 A' 

connect  ig\  then  igm  will 
be  the  tangent  required. 


80.  There  are,  gener- 
ally speaking,  eight  mold- 
ings used  to  separate 
different  members  and 
surfacesfrom  one  another, 
and  these  eight  are  shown 
in  Fig.  53.  The  fillet  A 
is  simply  a  square-edged 
band  used  to  separate 
individual  members  of  a 
group  of  moldings.  The 
cyma  recta  B  is  more 
commonly  known  as  a 
crown  molding,  as  it  is 
used  in  the  uppermost 
portions  of  a  composition ; 
at  C  is  the  cyma  revcrsa, 
the  contour  of  which  is 
the  direct  opposite  of  /?; 
at  D  is  the  cavetto,  or  hol- 
low molding ;  at  R  is  the 
echinus,  or  egg  -  shaped 
molding ,  at  F  is  the  bead, 
a  small  molding  similar  in  use  to  the  fillet,  but  with  a 
round,  instead  of  rectangular,  section.  At  G  is  the  scotia, 
the  contour  of  which  is  practically  the  reverse  of  the  echinus; 
and  at  //  is  the  torus  molding,  used  almost  exclusively 
around  the  bases  of  the  columns,  as  shown  in  Figs.  4!>  and  50, 


Fu;.  53. 


64 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


wherein  the  bases  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  columns  each 
consist  of  two  torus  moldings,  separated  by  a  scotia  and 
fillets.  In  Fig.  48,  the  principal  molding  at  -the  top  of  the 
Doric  column,  it  will  be  observed,  is  the  echinus.  The 
application  of  the  other  moldings  will  be  discussed  as  exam- 
ples of  them  occur. 

87.  Doric   Order. — As  seen  in  the  illustration  of  the 
Parthenon,  Fig.   4G,  there  is  little  carved  ornament  in  the 
Doric  order,    except  such   as   appears   in  the  sculpture  of 
figures  and  animals,  and,  though  in  the  Ionic  order  there  are 
a  few  examples  of  relief  ornament,  it  is  in  the  Corinthian 
order  we  find  the  greatest  relief  and  broadest  demonstration 
of  surface  work. 

88.  Ionic  Order. — In  Fig.  54  is  shown  a  frieze  from 
the  principal  Ionic  temple  in  Athens,  the  Erechtheum,  the 

style  of  which  is  typ- 
ical of  this  class  of  relief 
ornament  throughout 
Greek  design.  It  is 
plainly  a  development, 
in  relief,  of  the  brush 
forms  shown  in  Fig.  47 ; 
and  the  addition  of 
scrolls  at  the  bottom, 
and  leaves,  from  which 
the  forms  appear  to 
spring,  is  due  to  a  conventionalization  of  the  acanthus  leaf, 
which  first  makes  its  appearance  in  art  through  its  introduc- 
tion into  Greek  architecture. 

89.  Corinthian  Order.— In  Fig.  55,  however,  is  shown 
a  section  of  ornament  from  the  choragic  monument  of  Lysic- 
rates  at  Athens.     This  is  the  principal  structure  of  Greek 
origin  designed  in  the  Corinthian  order.      Fig.  55  is  an  orna- 
ment from  the  top  of  the  above  monument,  and  shows  not 
only  the  elaboration  of  ornament  characteristic  of  this  order, 
but  also  a  principle   of  ornamental  design  that  is   of   the 


FIG.  54. 


3 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


65 


utmost  importance  in  its  relation  to  the  lack  of  invention  of 
new  forms  and  the  restraining  influences  of  certain  art 
periods.  It  will  be  observed  here  that  the  various  parts  of 


FIG.  55. 

the  acanthus  scroll  grow  out  of  one  another  in  a  continuous 
line.  This  is  a  principle  of  design  that  originated  with  the 
Greeks,  and  was  continued  by  the  Romans,  after  which,  as 
we  shall  see,  it  was  abandoned,  and  the  abandonment  of  this 
simple  principle  was  sufficient  to  gen- 
erate an  entirely  new  order  of  forms 
and  ideas. 

In  Fig.  56  is  shown  a  form  of 
the  acanthus  leaf  taken  from  the 
Tower  of  the  Winds  at  Athens.  It 
is  purely  conventional  in  form,  pos- 
sessing a  broad,  bold  treatment,  nec- 
essary for  its  execution  in  stone,  and 
following  closely  the  principles  of  the 

growing  plant,  as  do   all    other    developments    in    Greek 
ornament. 


Gi;  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

These  few  examples  of  Greek  constructive  ornament 
are  most  important  just  now,  as  they  contain  the  principles 
from  which  certain  later  forms  were  developed,  though  they 
are  of  no  great  importance  in  subsequent  history,  except  so 
far  as  they  were  developed  and  extended  by  the  more 
voluptuous  though  degraded  art  of  Rome. 

DO.  Surface  Ornament. — Of  the  surface  ornament, 
purely  decorative  in  character,  we  have  a  great  variety  in 
Greece,  though  all  of  it  is  based  on  a  few  simple  types,  and 
restricted  almost  entirely  to  variations  of  the  brush  forms 
shown  in  Fig.  47.  The  first  exceptions  to  this,  however,  are 
the  fret  forms  used  extensively  both  in  the  architecture  and 


(a) 


FIG.  57. 

ceramics,  of  which  Fig.  57  (a)  and  (/>)  are  typical  examples. 
The  meandering  line  of  Fig.  57  (a]  is  continuous  and  forms 
the  entire  pattern,  while  in  (b]  the  pattern  is  composed  of 
two  lines  that  are  carried  through  the  fret  parallel,  to  its 
center,  where  they  cross  each  other  and  retrace  their  steps 
out  of  the  labyrinth. 

i)J  .      In  Fig.  ,").s  is  a  portion  of  a  repeating1  border  consist- 
ing of  a  number  of  brush  strokes  in  the  form  of  zpalmette  or 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


67 


anthemion,  and  then  enclosed  in  a  single  stroke,  by  which  it 
is  joined  to  a  repetition  of  the  same  form.     This  is  typical  in 
certain  classes   of  Greek  pottery,  and  is 
usually  executed  in  a  reddish  color  on  a 
black  ground. 

92.  Aiitliemion. — The  anthemion  is 
one  of  the  most  characteristic  of  Greek 
forms.     It  exemplifies- most  perfectly  the 
beauty  of  radiation,  of  tangential  union, 
and  of  the  proportionate  distribution  of 
areas.      In   Fig.   59   is   shown  at  (a)  an 
ornamental  form    occasionally  met  with 
in  the  earliest  examples  of  Greek  work, 
whose    identity    can    be    readily    traced 
back    to    the   lotus   by   comparison  with 
Fig.  15  (d).     The  Greek  development  of 
this  form  into  Fig.  59  (b)  is  not  hard  to 
comprehend.     The   radiating  leaves  are 
made  larger  and  fewer.     The  calyx,  from 

which  they  spring,  is  diminished  to  a  couple  of  conventional 

scrolls,  and  a  sweeping  out- 
line encloses  the  whole  device. 
The  figure  is  sufficiently  like 
that  in  the  design  shown  in 
Fig.  58  to  establish  the  origin 
of  the  latter;  and,  in  fact, 
numerous  cases  of  the  appli- 
cation of  the  anthemion  or 
palmette  ornament,  both  in 

sculptured  and  painted  work,  will  be    met  throughout  the 

study  of  Greek  art. 

93.  Greek  "Lily. — In  Fig.  GO  is  shown  another  pattern 
where  the  palmette  is  formed  of  brush  strokes  in  black  upon 
a  reddish  ground,   with  a    form  somewhat   resembling   the 
Greek  lily  between  each  pair.     The  palmette   form  in  this 
figiire  is  rather  more  densely  drawn  than  the  anthemion  in 


FIG.  58. 


08 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


Fig.  58,  and  is  representative  of  the  class  of  ornament  usually 
termed  the  Greek  honeysuckle.  •  The  conventional  form 
between  these  anthemions  just  referred  to — the  Greek 


iflflfl 


FIG.  60. 

lily — is  traceable  back  to  the  old  Egyptian  lotus  form,  as 
are  many  other  Greek  details. 

Fig.  61  shows  at  (a)  an  outline  form  of  the  lotus  seen  in 
many  of  the  hieroglyphs.  Variations  of  the  form  shown  at 
(b)  are  seen  in  both  Egyptian  and  Greek  work,  while  at  (c) 


(c) 


is  the  brush-stroke  device,   usually  distinguished  under  the 
name  of  the  Greek  lily. 

The  foliated  form  between  the  palmettes  in  Fig.  60  is 
undoubtedly  an  adaptation  of  the  lily  to  fit  around  the  brush 
strokes  of  the  intermediate  figures,  and  the  reaching  of  the 
outward  leaves  back  toward  each  other  is  suggestive  of 
the  treatment  of  the  lotus  flower,  both  as  used  in  Assyria, 
Fig.  41,  and  in  Egypt,  Fig.  28  (a). 


§3 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


69 


94.  In  Fig.  62  we  have  a  rosette  pattern,  repeated  at 
intervals  in  reddish  color  on  a  black  ground,  that  is  almost 
undoubtedly  of  Egyptian  origin,  as  shown  in  Fig.  25, 
although  its  development  on  a  similar  line  of  thought  may 


have  been  reached  in  Greek  art.  It  is  painted  around  the 
necks  and  bases  of  many  vases,  however,  and  is  used  so 
much  in  Greek  ceramics  that  we  associate  it  very  largely  with 
that  style  of  art. 

95.  Fig.  63,  another  pattern  undoubtedly  of  Egyptian 
origin,  brings  us  to  the  consideration  of  the  scroll  in  the 
surface  decoration  of  Greek  work.  This  pattern  must  cer- 
tainly have  been  borrowed  from  the  symbol  of  the  Nile  seen 


FIG.  63. 

in  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphs,  and  though  there  has  been 
little  change  in  the  idea,  we  find  a  refinement  of  its  propor- 
tion and  lines,  and  an  improvement  in  its  details  from  an  art, 
standpoint,  even  though  it  has  lost  all  its  symbolic  character. 

96.     Fig.  64  is  another  adaptation  of  an  Egyptian  idea,  as 
may  be  seen  by  referring  to  Fig.  26,  wherein  the  scroll  is 


;o  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  :> 

repeated  as  growing  out  from  a  device  of  the  same  kind,  and 
a  foliated  form,  slightly  suggestive  of  the  lotus,  fills  the 
space  between  each  pair.  The  rosette,  similar  to  that  shown 
in  Fig.  02,  is  also  used  as  a  termination  of  this  scroll,  and 


this  combination  of  the  scroll  growing  out  of  the  scroll  and 
terminating  in  a  rosette  or  flower,  is  of  vast  importance  in 
Roman  art,  although  on  this  simple  vase  border  is  the  first 
place  we  find  it  among  the  Greeks. 

07.  Guilloclie. — In  Fig.  Go  is  shown  an  interlaced 
ornament  used  almost  entirely  in  carved  work  on  the  torus 
moldings  at  the  base  of  a  column.  It  represents,  supposedly, 
the  woven  bands  around  the  bottom  of  a  shaft  composed  of 


a  bunch  of  reeds,  and  serves  to  bind  them  together.  The 
name  of  the  ornament  is  a  jyuilloohe,  and  different  forms 
of  it,  varying  in  complexity,  are  found  throughout  Greek 
art. 

98.     Fig.  00  shows  examples  of  raised  or  relieved  orna- 
ment, as  seen  in  the  details  of  the  temple  of  Athena  Polias, 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


FIG.  66. 


in  the  Erech'thcum  at 
Athens.  The  enrichment 
on  the  cyma  recta  /  is 
thelotus-flower  ornament, 
and  is  carved  in  very  low 
relief;  that  is,  cut  so  as 
to  be  raised  slightly  above 
the  surface  of  the  mold- 
ing, and  not  sunk  into  it, 
as  was  customary  with  the 
Egyptians  (see  Fig.  20). 
As  we  examine  later 
monuments  of  Greek 
architecture,  we  find  the 
relief  of  the  carvings 
increasing,  until,  when  we 
reach  the  Greco- Roman 
period,  the  stems  and 
stalks  are  in  many 
instances  so  under-cut  as 
to  be  almost  clear  of  the 
molding. 

The  waterleaf  carving 
on  the  cyma  rcversa 
occurs  three  times  in  this 
entablature,  and  is  of 
varied  form,  according  to 
its  location.  Up  under 
the  corona  at  a,  where 
the  shadow  is  deep  and 
dark,  the  waterleaf  is  cut 
broad  and  bold,  but  imme- 
diately below  the  cyma 
at  b,  and  above  the  upper 
facia  at  c,  the  lines  of  the 
leaf  are  drawn  longer  and 
narrower,  so  that  the 
moldings  appear  in  more 


72  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

delicacy  of  outline,  where  the  full  strength  of  the  light 
strikes  it.  The  same  thing  may  be  said  of  the  bead  mold- 
ings under  the  corona  at  d  and  under  each  of  the  two  lower 
cymae  reverses  at  e  and  f.  The  one  in  the  shadow  of  the 
corona,  as  at  d,  is  cut  into  long  beads,  while  the  one  above 
the  corona,  as  at  ^,  is  divided  into  much  more  minute 
divisions;  and  the  one  on  the  top  of  the  upper  facia,  as 
at  f,  being  in  the  strongest  light  of  all,  is  turned  into 
forms  where  the  bead  is  simply  a  tiny  sphere  between 
two  pairs  of  disks  of  the  same  diameter.  The  egg-and- 
dart  ornament  of  the  ovolo  occurs  here  above  the  corona 
of  the  entablature  at  g  and  under  the  guilloche  and  volutes 
of  the  capital,  the  only  difference  in  these  two  examples  being 
that  the  One  above  the  corona  is  carved  upon  a  straight  ovolo 
extending  along  the  top  of  the  corona,  while  the  other  is 
carved  in  the  circular  echinus  surrounding  the  top  of  the 
column.  The  honeysuckle  ornament  cut  on  the  neck  of  the 
column  is  in  low  relief,  the  same  as  that  upon  the  crown 
molding/.  The  guilloche  immediately  under  the  lines  of 
the  volute  is  carved  as  a  thin  strap,  loosely  braided,  around 
the  top  of  the  column,  and  the  same  ornament  is  cut  on  the 
upper  torus  of  the  base. 

99.  Polychromy  is  the  term  applied  to  the  ornamenta- 
tion of  sculptured  and  architectural  works  by  means  of  colors. 
In  ancient  buildings  these  colors  were  made  to  cover  both  flat 
surfaces  and  architectural  details,  while  in  statues  or  individ- 
ual portions  of  the  human  figure  and  drapery,  and  in  other 
products  of  plastic  art,  separate  features  of  a  sculptured 
ornament  were  colored  in  a  manner  characteristic  of  the 
subject. 

Egyptian  polychromy,  on  columns,  bases,  capitals,  entab- 
latures, wall  spaces,  and,  in  fact,  almost  everything  of  an 
architectural  character,  expressed  itself  in  a  series  of  highly 
colored  designs  in  low  relief,  consisting  mostly  of  figures  and 
hieroglyphs,  and  often  of  purely  decorative  ornament. 

In  Greek  architecture  a  complete  system  of  color  had  been 
developed  at  an  early  period,  particularly  as  applied  to  Doric 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


73 


JBJC  1*-4|»^»\»^»^»^ 

[U§jiMlM§I@IU@I^Mi  h 

\  __-—  -      --.-r 

/L  -r—  C1      U                                 ' 

L_ 

l^J     ^            u  _J  _i  i_J  u  u 

\  • 

temples,   upon  numerous  remains  of  which  traces  of  this 
coloring  are  distinguishable. 

The  principal  use  of  color  in  architecture  is  to  bring  out 
decoration.  Surfaces  may  be  relieved  by  a  rich  play  of  color 
without  actual  relief, 
and  ideas  may  with 
facility  be  expressed  by 
colors,  when  the  object 
they  embellish  calls  for 
the  widest  possible 
range  of  imagination 
and  fancy.  Still,  color 
has  its  own  province, 
and  to  a  certain  extent 
its  own  series  of  forms, 
and  must  therefore  be  treated  in  its 
own  manner.  A  harmonious  inter- 
play of  colors,  with  correct  propor- 
tion in  the  distribution  of  each,  is 
characteristic  of  a  fine  work  of  art. 
In  truly  artistic  periods,  color  has 
never  been  made  use  of  to  produce 
artificial  shadows  or  to  bring  out 
artificial  depths  and  reliefs;  nor  has 
it  in  any  way  been  employed  as  a 
makeshift  for  -them. 

1OO.  Figs.  67  and  68  show  a  num- 
ber of  examples  of  Greek  painted 
ornament  in  which  the  fret  and  the 
lotus  and  honeysuckle  ornament  are 
both  prominent.  Red,  yellow,  blue, 
and  green  were  the  principal  colors 
used  by  the  Greeks  in  these  decora- 
tions, but  they  were  so  toned  down  and  softened  that  the 
glare  and  harshness  of  such  brilliant  colors  were  blended 
into  one  delightful  monotint  as  one  viewed  their  struc- 
tures from  a  distance.  Fig.  67  is  a  portion  of  the  capital. 


FIG.  or. 


74  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

entablature,  and  pediment  of  the  Greek  Doric  order,  with 
the  characteristic  polychromatic  ornamentation.  The  fret- 
work on  the  abacus  at  a  was  uBrally  executed  in  a  dark 
red  or  black,  while  the  groundwork  was  pale  yellow  or 
orange.  The  egg-and-dart  ornament  on  the  echinus  of  the 
capital  b  was  generally  printed  in  red  on  a  dark-blue 
ground.  The  triglyphs  c  were  nearly  always  blue,  and  any 
ornament  e  on  them  was  executed  in  red.  The  metopes  f 
were  generally  red,  and  the  sculptured  figures  with  which 
the  metopes  were  ornamented  were  painted  in  tints  that 
represented  the  color  and  texture  of  their  garments. 

The  fret  drawn  on  the  taenia,  or  fillet,  g  and  those  on  the 
corona  and  epitithidas,  as  at  Ji  and  d,  were  usually  executed 
in  gold,  though  occasionally  in  red.  The  regulae  j  were 
blue  with  red  drops,  or  guttae  k,  as  were  also  the  mutules  /, 

but  the  soffit  of  the  corona 
;;/,  shown  in  Fig.  68,  was 
red.  The  small  moldings 
n  forming  the  finish  to 
the  corona  were  generally 
painted  in  light  colors, 
siich  as  red  and  blue,  with 

spaces  of  white  alternating 
FIG.  08. 

between.     1  he  honeysuckle 

or  lotus  ornament,  usually  found  on  the  cyma  recta  or  ovolo  0, 
shown  in  Fig.  07,  when  either  was  the  top  molding  of  the 
pediment,  was  carefully  outlined  in  gold,  and  was  always 
drawn  very  lightly  and  delicately  when  used  to  embellish 
this  top  member  of  the  entablature. 

1O1.  In  Fig.  69  we  arrive  at  a  more  complicated  pattern 
of  the  honeysuckle  ornament,  taken  from  the  temple  of 
Theseus  at  Athens.  In  this  example,  the  palmette  forms, 
composed  of  nine  brush  strokes,  were  executed  in  green, 
and  the  scrolls  and  connecting  fine  lines  between  members 
of  the  pattern  were  worked  in  gold.  The  intermediate 
blossom  between  the  palmettes,  or  conventionalized  floral 
form,  was  in  red,  and  the  whole  executed  on  a  creamy 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  75 

ground.  The  effect  was  naturally  very  brilliant,  the  red 
and  green  colors  standing  out  very  sharply  on  the  creamy 
ground,  and  contrasting  beautifully  with  each  other. 


FIG.  CO. 

In  their  colored  ornament,  the  Greeks  appreciated  the 
strengthening  effect  of  placing  one  color  beside  another,  and 
in  much  of  their  work  made  use  of  this  combination  of  red 
and  green  on  account  of  its  superiority  of  effect. 

In  Figs.  70  and  71  are  two  panels  taken  from  the  ceiling 
of  the  Parthenon.  While  these  at  first  seem  somewhat  sim- 


FlO.  70. 


ilar  in  appearance,   and   though  both  are  plainly  executed 
with  purely  brush  forms,  a  second  examination  will  show 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


§3 


that  they  are  entirely  different  as  a  whole,  and  unlike  in 
their  detail,  except  the  form  of  their  individual  strokes. 
The  lines  of  the  pattern  itself  were  executed  in  gold,  that  of 
Fig.  70  being  on  a  red  ground  with  a  blue  border  around  it, 
while  the  pattern  in  Fig.  71  was  on  a  blue  ground  with  a 
red  border.  This  difference  of  coloring  emphasized  not 
only  the  difference  in  pattern  of  the  two  panels,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  clearly  marked  the  dividing  line  between  them. 

102.  In  Fig.  72  is  shown  a  frieze  ornament  wherein  the 
entire  design  is  executed  in  the  contrasting   colors  of  red 
and  green  on  a  ground  of  cream.     The  central  stroke  of  the 
honeysuckle  ornament  and  of  the  figures  on  each  side  are 

green,  and  each  alternate 
brush  stroke  from  them  is 
green  also,  with  intermediate 
strokes  of  red.  The  genera- 
ting line,  which  encloses  the 
honeysuckle  ornament  and 
curves  into  the  base  of  the 
intermediate  figure,  is  green, 
but  the  triangular  stroke  at  the  base  of  the  honeysuckle  is  red. 
This  design,  like  the  two  previous  ones  discussed,  is  depend- 
ent entirely  on  the  limitations  of  brush  work  for  the  char- 
acter of  its  form,  while  the  contrast  of  color  in  the  different 
strokes  of  its  composition  gives  to  the  design  the  brilliancy 
of  effect  in  no  way  obtainable  in  a  pattern  executed  in  a 
monotint. 

103.  Aiitefixre. — Referring  back  to  Fig.  46,  it  will  be 
observed  that  all  along  the  edge  of  the  roof  are  a  number  of 
small  vertical  ornaments.      These  are  anteflxse,  and  are  so 
placed  to  close  the  end  of  each  row  of  tiles  with  which  the 
roof  was  covered.      Though  they  were  carved   in  marble, 
and  designed  to  fit  the  end  of  the  tile,  they  were  modeled 
after  the  palmetto,  whose  characteristics  were  governed,  as 
is  so  much  other  Greek  ornament,  by  the  capabilities  of  the 
brush  stroke. 


FIG.  72. 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  77 

In  Fig.  73  is  shown  one  of  these  antefixae,  the  scrolls  and 
vertical  strokes  of  which  were  green,  and  the  space  between 
the  two  scrolls  and  each  alternate  stroke 
above  them  were  painted  red. 

1O4.  Endless  examples  could  be 
recalled  exhibiting  one  or  more  of  the 
numerous  characteristics  of  Greek  orna- 
ment, but,  like  the  Egyptians,  their 
types  were  few,  and  it  is  the  repetition 
of  a  single  idea,  or  its  combination  with 

not  more  than  one  other  idea,  that  lends 

FIG.  73. 
what  variety  there  is  to  Greek  ornament. 

There  are  one  or  two  forms  used  in  later  art  that  undoubt- 
edly had  their  origin  on  Greek  soil,  but  they  were  developed 
to  so  much  greater  extent  in  a  later  period  that  their  details 
will  be  considered  in  the  later  style. 


ETRUSCAN  ORNAMENT. 

105.  The  Etruscans  were  a  people  inhabiting  the  middle 
part  of  Italy  from  a  period  of  most  remote  antiquity.      It  is 
probable  that  they  came  originally  from  the  same  Asiatic 
race  as  did  the  Greeks,  and  their  occupation  of  Italy  seems 
to  date  from  about  the  same  period  as  the  settlement  of 
Greece.     Their  language  has  never  been  translated,  how- 
ever, and  we  therefore  have  no  written  history  to  verify  this 
belief. 

106.  In  the  settlement  of  Rome,  the  Etruscans  played 
an  important  part.     They  were  a  highly  artistic  people,  while 
the  early  Roman  was  a  warrior  and  had  no  art  taste  what- 
ever.    The  Etruscans  introduced  the  arch  into  the  construc- 
tions of  public  utility,  and  in  that  way  it  found  a  place  in  the 
architecture  of  Rome.     Besides  their  skill  as  builders,  the 
Etruscans  were  particularly  deft  in  ceramics  and  goldsmith- 
ery,  and,  though  the  character  of  their  designs  bears  a  strong 


78  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

resemblance  to  those  of  Egypt  and  Greece,  their  style  was 
unique,  and  was  developed  on  independent  lines.  In  designs 
and  workings  for  jewelry,  they  were  original  and  skilled,  and 
Etruscan  jewelry  was  much  sought  even  in  artistic  Greece. 
Under  their  skilful  hands,  every  conceivable  object  was 
worked  into  the  design.  Flowers,  fruits,  figures,  vases, 
cornucopia,  rose  work,  crescents,  ellipsoidal  balls,  and  chains 
of  all  sorts  and  sizes  found  a  place  in  their  jewelry  designs. 
They  used  the  emerald  a  great  deal  more  than  any  other 
of  the  precious  stones,  on  account  of  a  superstition  that  it 
possessed  medical  qualities,  but  pearls,  glass  paste,  cameos, 
and  intaglios  were  used  also,  and  the  variety  and  taste  in 
this  line  of  ornament  exceeded  that  of  any  other  nation. 

1O7.  There  are  many  objects  of  Etruscan  design  that 
are  still  considered  masterpieces  of  art ;  and  diadems,  crowns, 
necklaces,  ear  drops,  bracelets,  hairpins,  and  rings  are  still 
designed  on  the  lines  originated  by  the  Etruscan  goldsmiths. 
Scarabaei  are  very  frequently  introduced  in  these  designs, 
and  are  sometimes  used  as  a  link  to  unite  two  parts.  In 
fact,  this  device  appears  so  frequently  in  their  jewels,  uten- 
sils, sword  hilts,  etc.  that  it  would  appear  probable  that  the 


FIG.  74. 


Etruscans  worshiped  this  insect,  or  associated  it  with  some 
superstitious  idea.  The  scarabaeus  of  the  Etruscans  differed 
materially  from  that  of  the  Egyptians,  inasmuch  as  it  was 
usually  carved  of  precious  stone,  or  metal,  whereas  the  Egyp- 
tian device  was  most  frequently  painted,  though  many  of 
them  were  worked  in  metal  and  worn  as  rings  and  jewelry. 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  79 

1O8.  In  Fig.  74  is  shown  a  necklace,  the  centerpiece  of 
which  consists  of  an  elaborate  piece  of  goldsmith's  work,  set 
with  precious  stones,  the  central  stone  being  a  large  emerald 
carved  in  the  form  of  a  face.  The  connecting  links  of  the 
chain  are  designed  in  gold  with  intermittent  precious  stones. 
This  is  characteristic  of  all  Etruscan  ornament,  and  only  one 
illustration  is  introduced  here,  as  it  is  simply  necessary  to 
consider  Etruscan  art  briefly,  in  order  to  preserve  the  thread 
of  history,  that  we  may  better  understand  the  influence  of 
these  people  on  the  art  of  Rome. 


GRECO-ROMAN    ORNAMENT. 

109.  Historical  Relations.— In  the  year   146   B.    C., 
Greece  was  conquered  by  Rome,  and  the  progress  of  pure 
Greek  art  suddenly  ceased.     The  invasion  of  Greece  and  her 
colonies,  by  Roman  workmen,  caused  the  art,  after  this  period, 
to  become  more  and  more  tainted  with  the  unrefined  taste 
of  the  conquering  nation.     On  the  other  hand,  Greek  artists 
executed  vast  w'orks  on  Roman  soil,  and  the  subjected  nation 
became  the  leaders  of  fashion  in  matters  of  art. 

The  subtle  refinement  of  the  Greek,  however,  became  lost 
in  the  extravagant  demands  of  Roman  taste,  and  the  result- 
ing Roman  art  possessed  none  of  the  finer  characteristics -of 
the  Greek  style.  Greek  art  was  delicate,  refined,  and  poetic 
—Roman  art  was  voluptuous,  vulgar,  and  extravagant. 
Greek  art  was  an  expression  of  pure  beauty — Roman  art  was 
an  ostentatious  display. 

110.  During  the  period  of  transition  when  Greek  forms 
were    undergoing    degradation    at   home,    and    conquering 
Roman  art  abroad,  the  style  assumed  a  peculiar  form  that 
was  neither  Greek  nor  Roman.     This  style  we  will  now  con- 
sider under  the  name  of  Greco-Roman,  though  in  modern 
times  it  is  more  often  termed  Pompclan  from  the  fact  that 
we  derive  the  bulk  of  our  information  concerning  it  from 
the  recently  excavated  city  of  Pompeii,  which  was  destroyed 
through  an  eruption  of  Mt.  Vesuvius  in  the  year  79  A.  D. 


80  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

111.  After  Greece  came  tinder  Roman  dominion,  the 
ever  increasing'  introduction  of  Greek  art  into  the  Roman 
school  caused  the  productions  from  Etruria  to  assume  pecul- 
iar characteristics,  as  the  local  works  of  art  yielded  entirely 
to  the  influence  of  the  conquered  country.  The  ancient 
Romans  possessed  nothing  of  their  own  worthy  of  the  name 
of  art.  In  their  earliest  period,  they  borrowed  ideas  from 
the  Etruscan  builders,  and  it  is  from  them  that  the  use  of 
the  vault  and  arch  are  introduced  for  the  first  time  in  archi- 
tecture. This  introduction  of  a  new  architectural  principle 
naturally  wrought  a  change  in  the  character  of  the  ornament, 
and  the  workmen  from  Etruria,  under  the  influence  of,  and 
association  with,  the  workmen  from  the  Greek  colonies, 
naturally  combined  the  art  of  Greece  with  the  structural  and 
engineering  devices  of  their  native  country.  When  the  gen- 
erals of  the  Roman  army  returned  from  conquered  Greece 
and  brought  back  as  plunder  the  objects  of  art  that  decorated 
Greece  and  her  temples,  they  converted  Rome  into  a  museum 
of  Greek  antiquities,  the  presence  of  which  changed  and 
directed  the  Roman  taste. 

11'-.  Mural  Painting. — In  decorative  painting,  par- 
ticularly that  applied  to  the  walls  of  dwelling  houses,  the 
Romans  borrowed  everything  they  could  from  Greece,  and 
Greek  art  became  the  ruling  fashion  of  Rome.  We  know 
little  of  the  plan  of  the  Greek  residences,  and  nothing  of 
their  decoration,  but  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  decorations 
of  the  houses  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  were  patterned 
after  the  decorations  of  the  Greek  dwellings  seen  by  the 
Roman  generals  in  their  campaign  in  that  country.  These 
two  cities  were  suburbs  of  Rome,  and  possessed  much  the 
same  character  as  a  modern  summer  resort.  The  decora- 
tions of  the  walls,  ceilings,  and  pavements  are  totally  differ- 
ent from  anything  we  find  in  Rome,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
show  elements  that  must  undoubtedly  have  originated  in 
Greece. 

These  wall  paintings  are  not  all  of  the  same  value,  and  a 
number  of  them  seem  to  have  been  executed  by  inferior 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  81 

artists,  but  the  beauty  of  others  has  led  to  the  belief  that 
they  were  copies  and  repetitions  of  Greek  work  of  great 
celebrity. 

113.  Besides  decorative  painting  at  Pompeii,  we  find  a 
more  or  less  imperfect  polychromatic  coloring  in  mosaic. 
This  branch  of  Roman  art,  therefore,  became  subjected  to 
serious  modifications.    The  Romans  already  possessed  a  rudi- 
mentary knowledge  of  mosaic  work  and  they  now  received 
examples  of  it  from  the  hands  of  the  Greeks,  in  a  more 
advanced  state;  but  the  inherent  love  of  luxury  in  wealthy 
Rome,  and  the  general  contempt  for  matters  of  expense, 
caused  the  taste  for  mosaic  work  to  increase  and  acquire 
real  progress. 

The  Romans,  however,  were  not  long  perverting  the  nature 
of  the  art  that  the  Greeks  had  transmitted  to  them.  The 
exquisite  taste  possessed  by  the  Greeks,  and  displayed  in 
their  distribution  of  ornament,  together  with  their  advanced 
imitative  science,  would  have  enabled  them  to  have  realized 
charming  conceptions  in  mosaic,  and  the  Greeks  would  never 
have  attempted  to  place  mosaic  in  competition  with  the  high- 
est prerogatives  of  painting. 

114.  The  Greeks  are   supposed  to  have  designed  the 
compartment  of  their  own  paved  floors  to  represent  such 
ornaments  as  branches,  scrolls,  festoons,  and  interlacings, 
and  possibly  passed  onwards  from  these  capricious  forms — 
somewhat  of  the  nature  of  arabesques — to  more  significant 
symbols  and  attributes,  such  as  griffins,  chimeras,  tragic  and 
comic  masks,  signs  of  the  zodiac,  birds,  fruits,  etc.     It  may 
even  be  inferred  that  the  idea  must  have  occurred  to  them 
to  inlay  a  scene  in  the  center  panel  of  some  of  their  richer 
pavements.     At  any  rate,  whatever  the  Greeks  saw  fit  to 
work  in  their  mosaic,  must  certainly  have  been  designed  in 
temperance,  good  taste,  and  with  the  highest  artistic  feeling. 

1 15.  It  was  characteristic  of  the  Romans  to  carry  every- 
thing to  excess;  and,  as  the  Romans  admired  mosaics,  they 
wished  to  have  them  everywhere. 


S3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

They  were  no  longer  satisfied  to  floor  their  courts  and 
lower  rooms  with  them,  but  inserted  them  in  the  sides  of 
their  walls,  in  the  soffits  of  their  arches,  and  in  their  ceil- 
ings. In  fact,  it  is  probable  that  they  made  more  use  of 
them  in  the  latter  positions  than  in  the  floors,  as  they  soon 
became  to  be  deemed  of  too  great  beauty  and  value  to  be 
trampled  under  foot. 

Now,  with  the  introduction  of  mosaic  pictures  in  the  side 
walls,  ordinary  pebbles,  stones,  natural  or  colored  marbles, 
paste,  and  terra  cotta  were  unable  to  contend  with  the  bril- 
liancy of  paintings,  especially  as  the  taste  of  painters  seemed 
to  be  impelled  by  a  mad  love  of  gaudy  color  and  richness, 
so  they  introduced  red,  purple,  and  azure  pigments,  and 
metallic  gold  and  silver  to  produce  a  deceptive  glitter  and 
striking  contrast.  Mosaic  consequently  demanded  fresh 
resources,  and  various  precious  stones,  such  as  agate,  jasper, 
carnelian,  sardonyx,  emerald,  turquoise,  and  lapis  lazuli,  were 
pressed  into  service,  in  order  to  produce  the  required  effects. 

Thus,  Roman  mosaic  work  became  an  ornamental  untruth. 
Its  productions  claimed  to  be  portraits  of  various  objects, 
executed  solely  to  please  the  eye,  and  of  materials  best 
suited  to  the  purpose;  while,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  were 
incapable  of  portraying  natural  forms,  and  the  materials 
were  more  suitable  for  pavements  than  for  side  walls.  The 
idea  was  false,  and  even  if  the  mosaic  worker  had  had  more 
shades  at  his  command,  and  the  painter  had  had  fewer  colors, 
the  strife  would  certainly  have  been  much  in  favor  of  the 
latter.  Mosaic  could  never  rationally  supersede  painting. 

1 1 6.  Pompeian  Ornament. — The  system  of  Pompeian 
ornament  was  carried  to  the  very  limit  of  caprice,  and  almost 
any  theory  of  coloring  and  decoration  could  be  supported  by 
authority  from  Pompeii.  The  general  arrangement  of  the 
decoration  of  the  walls  in  the  interior  of  a  Pompeian  house 
consisted  of  a  dado  about  one-sixth  the  height  of  the  room, 
on  which  stood  broad  pilasters  half  the  width  of  the  dado, 
thus  dividing  the  walls  into  three  or  more  large  panels.  The 
pilasters  were  united  by  a  frieze  at  the  top,  varying  in  width, 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  83 

but  usually  about  one-fourth  the  height  of  the  wall.  The 
space  above  the  frieze  was  frequently  left  white,  and  always 
subjected  to  most  delicate  treatment,  representative  of  clear 
sky  or  open  air;  and  on  the  background  were  painted  fan- 
tastic architectural  buildings  that  form  a  component  part  of 
the  character  of  the  style.  In  the  best  examples  there  was 
a  gradation  of  color  from  the  ceiling  downwards,  ending 
usually  with  black  in  the  dado ;  but  this  is  far  from  being  a 
fixed  law. 

117.  The  colors  used  were  mostly  yellow,  green,  red, 
and  black,  and  these  were  used  almost  indiscriminately  for 
the  various  parts.     Black  or  blue  was  occasionally  used  for 
the  panels,  but,  as  a  rule,  these  colors  were  confined  to  the 
dado.     Pilasters  of  yellow  or  green  seemed  to  be  the  more 
popular  tints,  and  red,  green,  and  blue,  with  an  occasional 
example  of  black,  predominated  in  the  panels.     The  most 
effective  arrangement  seems  to  have  been  a  black  dado  with 
red   pilasters   and  frieze,    and  with  yellow,  blue,  or  white 
panels,  the  upper  part  above  the  frieze  being  white  with 
colored  decorations  on  it.     The  best  arrangement  of  color 
for  ornament  on  the  ground  appears  to  have  been  masses  of 
green  and  blue,  with  sparing  use  of  red  and  yellow  on  the 
black  grounds;  white  in  thin  lines  and  yellow  in  masses  on 
the  blue  grounds;    and  white  and  blue  in  thin  lines  on  the 
red  grounds,  with  a  limited  use  of  yellow,  as  this  color  is 
not  very  effective  on  red.     The  Pompeian  yellow  approaches 
orange  in  hue,  and  the  red  is  strongly  tinged    with   blue. 
The  neutral  character  of  the  colors  thus  enabled  them  to  be 
used  violently  without  discord. 

118.  The  whole  style  of  this  system  of  decoration  is  so 
capricious  that  it  is  beyond  the  range  of  true  art,  and  strict 
criticism  cannot  be  applied  to  it.      It  generally  pleased  the 
eye  by  its  novelty,  but,  though  it  was  not  absolutely  vulgar, 
it  oftentimes  approached   vulgarity,  and  owed  its  greatest 
charm  to  the  light,  sketchy,  freehand  manner  of  its  execu- 
tion,   which  is   quite  impossible   to  render  in  any  modern 
drawing. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 

(PART  2.) 


CLASSIC  OENAMEKT. 


ROMAN    ORNAMENT. 

1.  Comparison  of  Roman  and  Greek  Art. --The  real 
greatness  of  the  Romans  seems  to  be  expressed  more  in  their 
theaters,  public  baths,  aqueducts,  and  other  works  of  a 
public  character,  rather  than  in  the  decoration  of  their  tem- 
ples. The  latter  were  but  the  outward  expression  of  a 
religion  they  had  acquired  largely  from  the  Greeks,  and  in 
which  they  had  little  faith,  and  therefore  showed  a  corre- 
sponding want  of  earnestness  in  the  art  worship.  In  the 
Greek  temple,  it  is  more  than  apparent  that  the  great 
struggle  was  to  attain  a  perfection  worthy  of  the  gods.  In 
the  Roman  temple,  the  aim  was  self-glorification.  From  the 
base  of  the  column  to  the  apex  of  the  pediment,  every  part 
of  the  structure  was  overloaded  with  ornament,  tending  more 
to  dazzle  the  eye  by  the  quantity  than  to  excite  admiration 
by  the  quality  of  the  work.  True,  the  Greek  temples 
when  painted  were  as  elaborately  ornamented  as  those  of 
the  Romans,  but  with  a  different  effect.  The  ornament 
was  arranged  so  that  it  threw  a  colored  bloom  over  the 

§4 

For  notice  of  the  copyright,  see  page  immediately  following  the  title  page. 


2  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

whole   structure,   and   in   no  way  disturbed  the   exquisitely 
designed  surfaces  that  received  it. 

The  Romans  ceased  to  value  general  proportions  and  con- 
tours, and  destroyed  them  by  elaborate  surface  modeling, 
and  extensive  molded  ornament.  The  chief  fault  of  this 
system  of  decoration  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  does  not  seem  to 
grow  naturally  from  the  structure,  but  is  applied  directly  to 
the  surface  in  the  same  way  that  was  suggested  in  connec- 
tion with  the  foliage  on  the  Greek-Corinthian  capital,  only 
in  the  present  case  it  is  exaggerated  to  a  greater  extent. 


THE  FIVE  ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


THE  GREEK  ORDERS. 

2.  Classic  Architecture. — The  orders  heretofore  re- 
ferred to  furnish  us  with  a  standard  of  proportion  with  which 
we  can  measure  all  the  classic  monuments,  and  by  which  the 
work  of  the  Renaissance  was,  and  much  of  the  modern  archi- 
tecture is  still,  proportioned. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  structures  of  the  classic  ages 
were  nearly  all  columnar — either  with  lintels  connecting  the 
tops  of  the  columns,  as  the  Greeks  built,  or  with  arches, 
according  to  the  Roman  custom.  Now,  the  architects  of  the 
classic  ages  had  reduced  to  an  exact  system  the  proportions 
of  lengths  to  thickness  in  columnar  work,  and  down  to  the 
present  day  we  have  been  unable  to  improve  on  their  pro- 
portions. This  system  is  universally  known  as  the  "Five 
Orders  of  Architecture, "  and  it  embraces  every  combination 
of  lines  and  masses  seen  in  the  classic  monuments. 

In  it  we  find  the  fundamental  principles  of  proportion, 
and  only  by  the  most  careful  study  of  these  principles 
can  we  appreciate  the  importance  of  architecture  as  a 
fine  art. 

\\.  Architectural  Meaning?  of  Order. — In  its  archi- 
tectural meaning,  the  term  order  refers  to  the  system  of 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  3 

columniation  practiced  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  is 
used  to  denote  the  column  and  entablature  together — that  is 
to  say,  the  upright  supporting  piers,  and  the  horizontal  roof 
beams  or  trabeation  supported  by  them.  These  two  divisions 
constitute  an  order,  and  so  far  all  orders  are  alike ;  but  the 
form  and  proportions  of  the  subdivisions  of  both  the  col- 
umn and  the  entablature  make  it  necessary  to  divide  the 
original  Greek  orders  into  three  classes,  and  when  these  three 
were  adopted  by  the  Romans,  they  again  divided  two  of  them, 
making  five  in  all.  Hence,  it  has  become  customary,  in 
referring  to  the  Five  Orders  of  Architecture,  to  mean  the 
Roman  forms.  The  three  original  orders  of  the  Greeks  are 
the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian,  as  explained  before.  Each 
order  is  an  assemblage  of  parts  subject  to  uniform,  estab- 
lished proportions,  and  is  regulated  by  the  office  each  part 
has  to  perform.  This  so  called  ' '  assemblage  of  parts  "  refers 
to  the  base,  shaft,  capital,  architrave,  frieze,  etc.,  while  the 
"  uniform,  established  proportions  "  are  the  comparative  sizes 
of  these  parts  to  one  another  in  the  same  order.  "  The 
office  each  part  has  to  perform  "  governs  its  size,  shape,  and 
position,  and  thus  completes  the  expression  of  character  in 
the  order. 

4.  Greek-Doric  Order. — The  general  character  of  the 
Greek- Doric  order  is  expressive  of  grandeur,  dignity,  and 
simplicity.  Hence,  we  find  it  used  almost  exclusively  in 
temples  dedicated  to  the  most  revered  of  the  Greek  deities, 
such  as  the  Parthenon,  at  Athens.  This  is  the  most  ancient 
of  all  the  classic  orders,  and  the  proportions  of  its  parts  vary 
considerably  in  the  different  periods  of  its  history.  However, 
it  reached  the  zenith  of  its  perfection  in  the  Parthenon,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  46  of  Historic  Ornament,  §  3,  and  it  is  from 
the  portico  of  that  temple  we  take  the  example  illustrated  in 
Fig.  1.  It  has  already  been  observed  that  the  Greek- Doric 
column  consisted  only  of  the  shaft  B  filling  the  space  between 
the  stylobate  A  and  the  capital  C.  The  latter  is  composed 
merely  of  an  echinus  molding  under  an  abacus,  which  is  the 
plain  square  slab  upon  which  the  architrave  D  rests.  The 


4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

Greek-Doric  order  never  possessed  a  base,  but  stood  upon  a 
stylobatc  A,  which  is  the  substructure  or  foundation  usually 
disposed  in  three  steps  or  divisions  that  extend  entirely  around 
the  building,  and  by  spreading  the  ground  line  of  the  structure, 


FIG.  1. 


give  a  proper  feeling  of  solidity  and  support.  In  the  outline 
of  the  column,  we  first  observe  contraction  and  then  expan- 
sion ;  the  former  where  the  echinus  converges  to  the  neck  of 
the  column,  and  the  latter  where  the  column  swells  out  to 
form  a  firm  and  substantial  support  at  the  bottom,  which  is 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  5 

larger  than  the  top.  With  few  exceptions,  the  column  of 
the  Greek-Doric  order  is  fluted ;  that  is,  its  surface  is 
grooved  perpendicularly  by  a  series  of  concave  channels  that 
touch  each  other  and  form  a  series  of  ridges,  or  arrises,  upon 
its  surface — a  mode  of  decoration  that  is  the  direct  opposite 
of  that  practiced  by  the  Egyptians,  some  of  whose  columns 
exhibit,  not  channels,  but  a  series  of  convex  ridges,  like  a 
bunch  of  reeds  or  stems  bound  together.  In  the  Doric  order, 
the  number  of  channels  is  either  sixteen  or  twenty,  though 
in  the  other  orders  there  are  usually  twenty-four.  The 
number  varies,  but  it  is  invariably  divisible  by  4. 

Doric  flutings  are  much  broader  and  shallower  than  those 
of  the  Ionic  or  Corinthian  orders — broader  for  two  reasons, 
first,  because  they  are  fewer  in  number,  and  therefore 
divide  the  circumference  into  larger  parts;  and,  second, 
because  there  are  no  separating  fillets  between  them.  The 
shallowness  of  the  Doric  flutes  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
arrises,  or  edges  where  the  flutes  come  together,  would  be 
thin  and  liable  to  breakage  if  the  flutes  were  deeply  cut. 
This  manner  of  fluting  Doric  columns,  leaving  arrises 
between  the  grooves  instead  of  fillets,  has  been  retained  in 
modern  practice  as  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  order. 
In  the  Greek-Doric,  every  detail  is  marked  by  its  breadth  or 
flatness,  or  by  its  sharpness.  There  are  no  curved  moldings 
or  surfaces  except  the  cpititJiidas  (a  term  given  to  the  upper- 
most member  of  the  corona)  and  the  echinus,  the  latter 
being  almost  flat  on  its  under  side  and  finished  with  a  sharp 
turn  against  the  abacus.  The  breadth  and  shallowness  of 
the  channels,  and  the  flat  curves  in  which  they  are  formed, 
are  therefore  in  perfect  keeping  with  the  style,  as  are  also 
the  sharp  arrises  between  the  flutings,  which  are  expres- 
sive of  a  severe  simplicity.  The  horizontal  rings,  or  annu- 
lets—  mere  grooves  cut  around  the  neck  of  the  column 
to  form  lines  of  separation  between  the  capital  and  the 
shaft — are  again  expressive  of  the  most  extreme  simplicity, 
and  are  in  direct  contrast  to  the  projecting  astragal,  or 
convex  molding,  of  the  Doric  capital  as  modified  by  the 
Romans. 


6  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

The  echinus  is  a  simple  convex  molding,  and,  from  its 
shape,  is  often  called  a  thumb  molding.  Its  form  is  sug- 
gestive of  strength,  as  it  expands  to  connect  the  dimin- 
ished upper  end  of  the  column  with  the  overhanging 
abacus. 

5.  Doric  Entablature. — The  entablature  of  the  Doric 
order  is,  like  the  column,  the  embodiment  of  dignity  and 
simplicity.  Its  lowest  division,  the  architrave  D,  is  a  plain 
beam,  whose  height,  including  the  taenia,  or  fillet,  is  a  trifle 
less  than  the  upper  diameter  of  the  column.  The  middle 
division,  or  frieze  E,  constitutes  a  very  characteristic  feature 
of  the  Doric  order,  being  invariably  ornamented  with  its 
triglyphs  and  metopes.  The  former  of  these  consists  of 
upright  blocks  about  one-half  the  width  of  the  mean  diam- 
eter of  the  column,  having  their  faces  grooved  with  two 
V-shaped  channels,  and  their  edges  chamfered  off  with 
two  half  channels,  thus  making  three  channels  altogether, 
from  which  the  ornament  derives  its  name  of  triglyph, 
or  three-channeled,  A  portion  of  the  triglyph,  called 
the  fillet,  extends  below  the  taenia  of  the  architrave,  and 
depending  from  it  are  six  drops,  or  guttae,  which  repre- 
sent the  heads  of  treenails  or  pins  used  in  the  early  wood 
construction. 

In  regard  to  the  arrangement  of  the  triglyphs,  one  was 
placed  over  every  column,  and  one  or  more  over  the  space 
between  each  pair  of  columns,  but  always  so  spaced  that  the 
metopes,  or  spaces  between  the  triglyphs,  should  be  exactly 
square;  in  other  words,  the  height  of  the_  triglyph  was 
always  equal  to  the  distance  between  them.  In  the  best 
Greek  work,  there  was  only  one  triglyph  between  each  pair 
of  columns,  and  this  arrangement  is  usually  called  monotri- 
glypliic,  or  single-triglyphed  intercolumniation.  A  peculi- 
arity of  the  Greek-Doric  frieze  was  that  the  end  triglyphs, 
instead  of  being,  like  the  others,  in  the  same  axis,  or  cen- 
tral line,  as  the  columns  beneath,  were  placed  quite  up 
to  the  edge  or  outer  angle  of  the  frieze.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  making  the  extreme  intercolumniation  less  by 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


one-half  a  triglyph  than  the  intermediate  ones,  thereby 
imparting  an  expression  of  strength  to  the  angles  of  the 
building. 

The  triglyphs  are  thus  seen  to  govern  the  spacing  of  the 
columns,  and  as  the 
spacing  or  intercol- 
umniation  governs 
the  diameter,  and 
the  diameter  gov- 
erns the  height,  etc. , 
we  see  that  nearly 
all  the  proportions 
of  a  Doric  temple 
can  be  traced  from 
the  size  of  its  tri- 
glyph. There  is  one 
exception  to  this, 
however,  and  that 
is  the  little  choragic 
monument  of  Thra- 
syfius,  on  the  south 
slope  of  the  Acrop- 
olis, at  Athens.  This 
monument  has  no 
triglyphs,  but  a 
series  of  wreaths 
ornament  the  frieze  in  their  stead.  The  guttae  are  never- 
theless retained,  but,  instead  of  being  grouped  at  intervals, 
they  are  continued  across  the  lower  side  of  the  taenia  unin- 
terruptedly, as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

6.  The  Cornice. — The  third  and  last  division  of  the 
Doric  entablature,  the  cornice  F,  though  extremely  simple, 
is  strongly  characteristic  and  boldly  marked.  It  is  in  height 
about  two-thirds  the  height  of  the  frieze,  and  it  is  divided 
into  three  principal  parts,  the  corona^  with  the  mutulcs 
beneath  it,  and  the  echinus  above  it.  The  mutules  are  thin 
plates  or  tablets  worked  on  the  soffit,  or  under  side,  of  the 


! 

* 

1 

u 

o  o 

o  o 

is 

0  0 

0  0 

I) 

j 

';_  '."  '  '  ""• 

• 

*""tr"-r.^ 

BBS 

,  -•!  ^ 

r7 

M^K 

FIG.  2. 


8  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §4 

corona,  directly  over  each  triglyph  and  each  metope.  With 
the  former,  they  correspond  in  width,  and  their  soffits,  or 
under  surfaces,  are  set  with  a  rake,  or  slant,  which  makes 
them  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  pediment.  They  repre- 
sent the  under  side  of  the  wood  roof  beams  that  extended 
over  the  eaves  in  the  earlier  construction.  Three  rows  of 
gutt<z,  or  drops,  somewhat  conical  in  shape,  ornament  the 
soffits  of  the  mutules,  each  row  corresponding-  in  number 
of  drops  with  the  guttae  on  the  triglyphs  beneath.  The 
corona  is  merely  a  boldly  projecting  flat  member,  not  much 
deeper  than  the  abacus  of  the  capital,  and  examples  exist 
where  it  is  even  less. 

The  uppermost  member  of  the  entablature,  the  cpitith- 
idas,  was  sometimes  a  cymatium,  or  wavy  molding,  con- 
vex below  and  concave  above,  or  it  was — as  in  this  exam- 
ple—  an  echinus  similar  in  profile  to  the  echinus  of  the 
capital.  The  cornice  is  to  the  entablature  what  the  capital 
is  to  the  column,  the  crowning  member  of  the  composition, 
completing  and  ending  it  in  a  very  artistic  and  pleasing 
manner. 

7.  The   proportions    of    these    architectural   orders   are 
measured  in  terms  of  the  diameter  of  the  column.     Thus, 
the  diameter  of  the  column  in  its  thickest  part  is  divided 
into  two  portions,  called  modules,  and  the  proportions  of 
the  order  are  then  measured  as  being  so  many  modules  high 
or  wide.     A  module  is  then  divided  into  30  subdivisions, 
called  parts,  for  the  convenience  of  smaller  measurements. 
These  terms  are  usually  abbreviated  to  m  for  modules  and  p 
for   parts,    and   are    so   designated    on    the    drawing.      For 
instance,  in  Fig.  1,  the  height  of  the  column  from  the  stylo- 
bate  to  the  architrave  is  shown  to  be  11  modules  (that  is, 
54-  diameters)  and  the  top  step  of  the  stylobate  is  shown  to 
be  17f  parts  in  height,  while  in   the   cornice   F  is  shown 
23  parts;  that  is,  |f  of  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  column. 

8.  The  Ionic  Order. — The  Ionic  order  is  lighter  and 
more  delicate  than  the  Doric,  being  expressive  of  grace  and 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


9 


refinement  rather  than  of  grandeur  and  dignity.  It  was 
used  by  the  Greeks  in  temples  dedicated  to  deities  repre- 
senting the  more  worldly  settlements,  such  as  the  temple 


FIG.  s. 

of  Victory  and  the  porch  of  the  temple  of  Athena  Polias, 
shown  in  Fig.  3. 

Although  the  capital  is  the  distinguishing  characteristic, 
every  detail  of  the  order  differs  entirely  from  the  Doric. 
Besides  having  the  addition  of  a  base,  the  shaft  is  taller  and 
of  more  slender  proportions,  and  much  less  tapering.  The 
example  of  the  Ionic  order  shown  in  Fig.  4  is  taken  from  the 
porch  of  the  temple  of  Athena  Polias,  and  shows  the  order 
in  the  zenith  of  its  perfection.  The  capital  D  is  not  only 


10  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

more  complex,  but  also  more  irregular  than  the  Doric  capital, 


7 


.1 ifPfg 

^fJif^f  JT  •  «  «r»:irMJg»:war»M^ifpJ»j«y     1 


FIG.  4. 


as  it  has  two  faces,  or  fronts,  parallel  to  the  architrave  above 
it,  one  of  which  is  shown  at  D,  and  two  narrower  bolster 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


11 


,.*..•.  •  t..t.  t  1. 1 


FIG.  5. 


sides  beneath  the  architrave,  of  which  one  is  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
This   irregularity   is   considered   by 
many  a  defect,  which  can  be  obviated 
only  by  turning  the  volutes  diago- 
nally, as  in  some  Roman  and  modern 
examples,  or  by   curving  concavely 
the  faces  of  the   capital,  instead  of 
making  them  planes,  thereby  obtain- 
ing four  equal  faces.     However,  the 
Ionic  capital,  as  used  in  the  Erech- 
theum  and  in  the  temple    of   Nike 
Apteros,  or  Wingless  Victory,  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens, 
suits  its  position  as  well,  and  is  as  perfect  an  architectural 
feature  as  is  the  Doric  order  in  the  Parthenon. 

The  only  objection  to  the  Ionic  capital  is  that  in  the  end 
columns  of  a  portico  it  exhibits  an  offensive  irregularity, 

because,  on  the  return  side  of  the 
building,  the  bolster  or  side  of  the 
capital  shows  itself  beneath  the 
face  of  the  architrave ;  yet  even 
this  is  of  no  great  consequence, 
unless  the  colonnade  is  continued 
down  the  sides  of  the  building, 
and  the  capitals  at  the  extremities 
present  their  bolster  sides  to  the 
observer,  while  the  intermediate 
ones  show  the  voluted  face.  The 
Greeks,  with  their  usual  inventive 
ingenuity,  gave  the  capital  at  the 
angle  two  adjoining  voluted  faces, 
so  that  it  should  agree  with  the 
other  columns  both  on  the  front 
and  on  the  flank  of  the  building. 
This  was  accomplished  by  placing 
the  volute  at  the  angle  diagonally, 
so  as  to  obtain  there  two  voluted 

surfaces   placed   immediately   back    to   back,   as    shown   in 
Fig.  G,  which   is   an   angle    capital   from   an   Ionic   temple 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §4 

on  the  Ilissus  River,  near  Athens.  At  a  in  the  elevation 
(a)  is  the  angle  where  the  volutes 
are  turned  back  to  back,  shown  at  b 
in  the  plan  (£),  and  in  Fig.  7  is 
shown  a  view  of  these  two  volutes  as 
they  would  appear  looking  directly  at 
the  corner.  We  therefore  have  two 
volutes  and  two  bolsters,  as  in  any 
Ionic  capital ;  but  the  volutes  are  on 
two  adjacent  sides  c,  d,  Fig.  6  (£),  while 
the  bolsters  are  on  the  two  opposite 
adjacent  sides  *•,  f.  A  voluted  face 
was  thus  kept  to  the  outside  on  both 

sides  of  a  corner,  and  the  columns  could  be  continued  entirely 
around  the  cella. 

The  Ionic  order  possesses  a  base  that  differs  in  outline  and 
moldings  according  to  the  locality  where  the  example  is 
found.  The  best  examples  existed  in  Attica — the  state  of 
which  Athens  was  the  capital — and  the  most  artistic  base, 
and  the  one  best  adapted  to  the  order  is  found  here,  and  is 
known  as  the  Attic  base,  shown  at  B  in  Fig.  4.  It  consists 
of  two  heavy  torus  moldings,  separated  by  a  scotia  molding 
and  resting  on  a  square  plinth,  or  stylobate.  The  upper 
torus  is  sometimes  carved  with  a  guilloche  ornament,  as 
shown,  or  is  left  perfectly  plain. 

9.  The  shaft  C  of  the  column  is  grooved  by  twenty-four 
flutes,  each  pair  of  flutes  being  separated  by  a  fillet.  These 
flutes  extend  from  the  apophyge,  or  swelling  of  the  column 
shown  at  a  on  the  base  of  the  shaft,  to  the  astragal,  or  fillet, 
around  the  neck.  The  neck  is  enriched  with  a  carved  honey- 
suckle ornament,  which  is  carried  entirely  around  the  column. 
Above  the  neck  is  a  fillet  and  bead,  and  above  this  is  a  small 
echinus,  which  is  carved  with  an  egg-and-dart  ornament. 
Resting  upon  this,  echinus  is  a  small  torus  that  separates  the 
echinus  from  the  cushion-like  capital,  the  ends  of  which  are 
terminated  by  the  i-olutcs.  A  number  of  bands  are  run 
across  the  face  of  the  cushion  and  rolled  up  on  each  side. 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  13 

The  abacus  is  a  flat  slab  whose  molded  edge  is  carved  with 
an  egg-and-dart  ornament. 

The  Ionic  entablature,  as  expressed  in  modules,  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  Doric  order;  but  in  proportion  to  the 
length  of  the  column,  the  Ionic  entablature  is  less  than  the 
Doric.  For  example,  the  entablature  of  the  Parthenon 
is  about  3^  modules  high,  while  die  Ionic  entablature  is 
about  4^  modules  high;  bat  4^  modules  of  a  column  18  mod- 
ules high  equal  one-quarter  the  height  of  the  column,  while 
31-  modules  of  a  column  only  11  modules  high  equal  about 
one-third  the  height  of  the  column,  thereby  making'  the 
Ionic  order  lighter  and  more  delicate  than  its  dignified 
brother,  the  Doric. 

1O.  The  Ionic  Architrave. — The  Ionic  architrave  does 
not  differ  materially  from  that  of  the  Dork;.  Its  average 
height  is  equal  to  the  upper  diameter  of  the  column,  and  it 
is  usually  divided  into  three  surfaces,  or  courses,  called  /tfr/Vw, 
which  very  slightly  project  one  over  tbe  other.  There  ate 
a  few  examples  where  the  architrave  is  left  plain,  as  in  the 
Doric  order,  and,  in  such  cases,  the  moldings  are  not  so 
heavy  as  in  this  example  from  die  Erechthenm.  Tbe  Ionic 
frieze,  being  devoid  of  triglyphs,  and  having  no  other  char- 
acteristic member  substituted  for  them,  becomes  a  mere 
plain  surface,  interposed  between  the  architrave  and  the 
cornice.  This  plainness  may  be  relieved  by  carving-  thereon 
figures  in  bas-relief;  but  as  sculpture  of  that  kind  does  not 
belong  to  the  character  of  the  entablature,  it  is  never  taken 
into  account  in  describing'  the  details  of  the  order.  The 
Ionic  cornice  is  a  simple  affair,  especially  in  the  Athenian 
examples  being^  merely  a  corona,  with  a  cyma  recta 
above  it  and  some  narrow  bed  moldings  beneath  it.  The 
soffit  of  the  corona  is  hollowed  out  as  shown  by  tbe  dot- 
ted line,  and  the  bed  moldings  above  referred  to  are  left 
when  this  soffit  is  so  cut.  and  are  here  shown  dotted 
under  the  corona.  Between  the  corona  and  the  cyma 
are  two  small  enriched  moldings,  a  bead,  and  another 
-  >. 


14 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


FIG.  8. 


11.      The    Greek- 
Corinthian    Order. — 

The  Corinthian  order 
is  the  lightest  and  most 
delicate  of  the  three, 
but  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  determine  for 
what  class  of  builders 
the  Greeks  considered 
it  best  adapted,  as  there 
is  but  one  perfect 
example  left  for  us  to 
judge  at  the  present 
day,  and  that  is  the 
choragic  monument  of 
Lysicrates,  at  Athens, 
shown  in  Fig.  8.  Like 
the  Ionic,  the  prin- 
cipal characteristic  of 
the  Corinthian  order  is 
its  capital  —  tall,  bell- 
shaped,  and  richly  foli- 
ated, as  shown  at  C, 
Fig.  9.  As  was  said 
with  regard  to  the 
entablature  of  the  Ionic 
order,  the  capital  of  the 
Corinthian  column  is 
higher  in  proportion  to 
the  diameter  of  the 
column  than  is  either 
the  Ionic  or  the  Doric; 
but,  as  the  shaft  is 
longer  and  more  slen- 
der than  either  of 
the  others,  it  is  able 
to  carry  a  higher 
capital. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


15 


12.     The  Corinthian  capital  has  two  rows  of  leaves, 
eight  in  the  upper  row,  and  sixteen  in  the  lower  row,  so  dis- 


FiG.  9. 


posed  that,  of  the  taller  ones,  composing  the  upper  row,  one 
conies  in  the  center,  beneath  each  face  of  the  abacus,  and 
the  lower  leaves  alternate  with  the  upper  ones,  coming  both 


Hi  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §4 

between  and  under  the  stems  of  the  latter,  so  that  in  the 
first,  or  lower,  tier  of  leaves  there  is,  in  the  middle  of  each 
face,  a  leaf  between  each  two  leaves  of  the  upper  row,  and 
also  a  leaf  under  the  stem  of  the  central  leaf  above  them. 
Above  these  two  rows  is  a  third  series  of  eight  leaves,  turned 
so  as  to  support  the  small  volutes,  which  in  turn  support  the 
angles  of  the  abacus.  Besides  these  outer  volutes,  which 
are  invariably  turned  diagonally,  as  in  the  four-faced  Ionic 
capital,  there  are  on  each  face  of  the  capital  two  other 
smaller  ones,  termed  caulicnli,  which  meet  each  other 
beneath  a  flower  on  the  face  of  the  abacus. 

The  abacus  itself  is  different  in  shape  from  that  of  either  of 
the  other  two  orders.  In  the  Doric,  it  is,  as  we  have  seen, 
merely  a  thick  slab  resting  on  the  echinus  beneath  it,  and 
left  absolutely  plain ;  in  the  Ionic,  also,  it  is  square,  but  the 
sides  are  molded  and  sometimes  carved,  while  the  Corinthian 
abacus  is,  strictly  speaking,  not  even  square,  except  in 
general  form.  True,  it  has  four  equal  sides,  but  instead  of 
being  straight,  they  are  deeply  concave  in  plan,  and  the 
acute  point  that  would  be  formed  by  the  meeting  of  these 
concave  sides  is  usually  cut  off  straight,  thus  making  the 
abacus  an  eight-sided  figure,  four  of  whose  sides  are  short 
and  straight,  while  the  other  four  are  long  and  curved. 

13.  The  base  A  of  the  Greek-Corinthian  column  is  of 
the  Attic  type,  almost  the  same  as  that  of  the  Ionic  order; 
and  the  shaft  /?,  like  the  Ionic  also,  has  twenty-four  flutes 
separated  by  fillets,  but  these  flutes  and  fillets  terminate  at 
the  top  very  differently  from  the  way  they  do  in  the  Ionic. 
Here  we  have  a  row  of  leaf-like  ends  curling  out  from  the 
column,  with  the  fillets  forming  their  central  ribs.  The 
edges  of  these  leaves  intersect  in  an  angle,  and  this  angle 
gradually  flattens  out  until  it  disappears  entirely  in  the 
surface  of  the  flute.  Above  these  leaf-like  ends,  and  below 
the  lower  row  of  leaves  in  the  capital,  is  a  groove,  cut 
entirely  around  the  column,  to  emphasize  the  starting 
point  of  the  capital,  and  which  is  said  to  have  originally 
served  as  a  receptacle  for  a  braided  band  of  bronze  laurel 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  17 

leaves,  contrasting  beautifully  with  the  white  marble  of  the 
monument. 

The  entablature  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Ionic  order, 
with  the  exception  of  the  cornice,  which  is  larger  and  some- 
what richer  than  the  uppermost  member  of  the  order  from 
the  Erechtheum.  The  architrave  is  divided  into  three  facias, 
as  in  the  previous  order,  but  their  surfaces  are  not  perpen- 
dicular. On  the  contrary,  the  faces  are  battered  back  so 
that  the  three  arrises,  or  edges,  are  perpendicular  over  one 
another,  and  the  offsets  are  formed  by  the  batter.  The 
molding  at  the  top  of  the  architrave  is  a  simple  cyma  reversa, 
resting  on  a  bead  and  surmounted  by  a  rather  heavy  fillet. 
The  frieze  is  shown  here  with  the  carved  figures  in  relief,  as 
it  appears  in  the  original  monument,  although,  as  said  before, 
this  carving  does  not  form  a  component  part  of  the  order  itself. 
Above  this  frieze  is  a  small  torus  and  an  ovolo  supporting  the 
dentil  course.  These  dentils  are  small  rectangular  blocks, 
spaced  about  two-thirds  their  width  apart,  and,  in  all  proba- 
bility, are  the  stone  representations  of  projecting  ceiling  joists, 
which  existed  in  an  early  system  of  wooden  construction. 

Above  this  dentil  course  is  a  cyma  recta,  supporting  a 
cyma-reversa  bed  molding  under  the  corona.  The  corona 
projects  more  in  the  Corinthian  than  it  does  in  the  Ionic 
order;  and  the  crowning  member,  instead  of  being  a  cyma, 
as  in  the  previous  order,  consists  of  a  series  of  antefixce  sup- 
ported upon  a  serrated  band,  which  is  separated  from  the 
corona  by  a  small  echinus. 

This  completes  the  general  description  of  the  Greek 
orders,  a  description  that  has  been  here  given  somewhat  in 
detail,  in  order  that  the  student  may  fully  comprehend  the 
liberties  that  were  taken  with  these  orders  when  the  Romans 
converted  them  to  their  own  uses. 


THE  ROMAN  ORDERS. 

14.  The  Five  Orders  of  Architecture,  according  to  the 
Italian  architect  and  writer,  Vijjnola,  \yill  now  be  analyzed 
and  described,  and  the  attention  of  the  student  is  called 


18 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


J 


FIG.  10. 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  19 

particularly    to   the   unrefining   influence   of    the    Romans 
expressed  in  their  interpretation  of  the  Greek  art  forms. 

The  Romans  were  not  an  imaginative  race,  and  had  few 
original  ideas  in  architecture.  Their  early  works  were 
copied  from  the  Etruscans,  and  their  later  efforts  were  bor- 
rowed from  the  Greeks.  In  nothing  is  this  fact  more  evident 
than  in  the  first  of  the  five  Roman  orders,  namely,  the  Tus- 
can, Fig.  10. 

15.  The  Tuscan  order  is  but  a  modified  form  of  the 
Greek- Doric,  or,  perhaps,   more  strictly  speaking,  it  is  an 
undeveloped  form  of  the  Roman-Doric.     It  takes  its  name 
from  the  Etruscan  people,  who  are  supposed  to  be  its  orig- 
inators,  though  it   is  not  improbable   that   the    Etruscans 
received  their  ideas  from  the  same  source  as  did  the  Greek- 
Dorians,  both  nations  having  emigrated  from  Asia  about  the 
same  time.     One  thing  is  certainly  true,  the  Tuscan  column 
and  entablature  bear  a  closer  resemblance  to  the  proportions 
of  the  Greek-Doric  than  they  do  to  the  Roman-Doric,  which 
was  admitted  to  be  more  or  less  copied  from  it;  and  the 
Roman-Doric  resembles  more  the  Tuscan  column  and  entab- 
lature than  it  does  the  Greek  order,  whose  name  it  bears. 
Hence,  we  see  that  the  Tuscan  is  a  sort  of  connecting  link 
between  the  Greek  and  the  Roman  orders.     It  contains  many 
Greek  details  that  the  Roman-Doric  does  not,  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Roman-Doric  possesses  many  Tuscan  fea- 
tures unheard  of  in  the  Greek.     The  characteristics  of  the 
order  are  its  crudcness  and  plainness,  combined  with  its  heavy 
moldings  and  lack  of  refinement  in  outline.     It  has,  like  all 
other  Roman  orders,  a  regularly  proportioned  and  molded 
pedestal  B,  which,  though  not  a  specific  part  of  the  order 
itself,  is  generally  drawn  with  it  when  the  order  is  shown 
alone. 

16.  The  pedestal  is  simply  a  square  block  B,  with  an 
apophyge,  or  escape  to  the  fillet,  resting  on  the  plinth  A  at 
the  bottom,  and  with  a  cyma  reversa  and  a  fillet  at  the  top. 
Upon  this  stands  the  base  of  the  column  /?,  which  consists  of 


20  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

a  torus  and  a  fillet  resting  upon  a  square  plinth.  The  capi- 
tal F  is  in  some  respects  similar  to  the  Doric,  but  lacks  both 
the  refinement  of  the  Greek-Doric  and  the  delicacy  of  the 
Roman.  It  consists  of  an  abacus,  ovolo,  and  necking.  The 
abacus  is  square  in  plan  similar  to  the  Greek-Doric,  and  is 
composed  of  a  fillet  resting  upon  a  plain  facia  that  has  an 
apophyge,  or  curved  escape  to  the  fillet.  The  ovolo  is  a 
plain  molding,  often  referred  to  as  a  quarter  round,  as  its 
section  is  exactly  a  quarter  of  a  circle. 

The  entablature  is  subdivided  into  an  architrave  G,  a  frieze 
//,  and  a  cornice  /,  in  proportions  nearer  to  the  Greek-Doric 
than  is  the  Roman  order  of  that  name.  But  the  triglyphs 
and  mutules  so  characteristic  of  the  Doric  order  are  omitted 
entirely,  while  the  moldings  are  large  and  heavy  and  out  of 
proportion  to  the  surfaces  they  are  intended  to  ornament. 
The  shaft  of  the  Tuscan  column  is  never  fluted,  and  no  carv- 
ing or  enrichment  of  its  moldings  or  surfaces  is  ever  practiced. 

17.     Comparison    of  Greek   and    Roman    Orders.— 

Before  making  a  comparison  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  orders, 
let  us  first  consider  some  of  the  conditions  that  made  alter- 
ation necessary,  before  the  art  creations  of  the  Greeks  could 
be  adopted  by  the  Roman  builders. 

The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  all  Roman  architecture 
is  the  persistent  use  of  the  arch.  The  Greeks  spanned  their 
openings  with  lintels — simple  stone  beams  laid  across  from 
one  column  to  another — and  the  width  of  the  openings  they 
could  thus  span  was  limited  by  the  length  of  the  stones  they 
could  conveniently  quarry.  But,  by  means  of  the  arch,  the 
Romans  could  span  any  width  desirable ;  but  the  pressure  of 
the  arch  at  the  abutments  was  in  the  character  of  a  hori- 
zontal thrust,  which  would  overthrow  any  ordinary  column, 
and  especially  such  columns  as  were  used  by  the  Greeks,  laid 
up  in  several  courses  and  devoid  of  mortar  or  cement. 

Heavy  masonry  piers  laid  up  in  strong  mortar  with  securely 
bonded  courses,  became  necessary,  therefore,  to  withstand 
this  thrust,  and  the  Romans,  having  no  structural  use  for  the 
Greek  orders,  applied  them  as  ornament  to  their  masonry 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


abutments.  This  is  a  very  important  point  and  sliould  be 
remembered. 

The  orders,  thus  backed  up  by  heavy  piers,  did  not  require 
that  appearance  of  sturdy  independence  that  the  Greeks 
instilled  into  their  supports,  and  they  were  consequently 
drawn  out  longer  and  thinner,  and  embellished  with  much 
carving  and  enrichment,  as  though  endeavoring  to  attract 
the  attention  to  their  false  beauty,  while  the  piers  and 
arches  did  the  real  mechanical  work  of  holding  up  the 
building. 

This  will,  perhaps,  be  more  clearly  understood  by  refer- 
ring to  Fig.  11,  which  is  a  portion  of  the  facade  of  the  Thea- 
ter Marcellus,  at  Rome.  The  arches  resting  on  the  piers 
support  all  the  mason  work 
above  them,  while  the  col- 
umns and  the  entablatures  are 
applied  to  the  structure  sim- 
ply as  ornament.  Strip  these 
columns  off,  and  the  building 
will  stand  as  well  as  with  them, 
but  in  appearance  it  will  be 
simply  a  structural  edifice, 
entirely  utilitarian,  and  in  no 
way  esthetic. 

Greek  designers  made  their 
architecture  beautiful  by  orna- 
menting the  construction  itself 
— remove  the  column,  or  en- 
tablature, and  you  remove  the 
essentials  of  the  structure — 

but  the  Romans  designed  the  structure  entirely  apart  from 
the  ornament,  and  the  latter  might  easily  be  removed  with- 
out injury  to  the  strength  of  the  fabric. 

18.     Description  of  the  Roman-Doric  Order. — The 

Doric  column,  as  used  by  the  Greeks,  was  from  five  to  seven 
diameters  in  length,  and  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  being  of 
the  greatest  diameter,  it  required  no  base  to  stand  on,  and 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


FIG. 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  23 

was  beautiful  in  its  simplicity.  The  Doric  of  the  Romans, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  12,  was,  on  the  contrary,  eight  or  more 
diameters  in  height,  and  the  bottom  of  its  shaft  was  so 
small  in  proportion,  that  a  regular  molded  base  became 
necessary  to  give  it  an  appearance  of  stability.  There  are 
instances  where  the  column  was  used  without  a  base,  and 
the  first  story  of  the  Theater  Marcellus,  at  Rome,  Fig.  11, 
is  a  most  excellent  example  of  the  struggle  to  apply  the 
Tuscan  details  to  the  Greek  form.  The  lower  order  of  the 
Theater  Marcellus  presents  the  Tuscan  entablature  with 
triglyphs  in  the  frieze  and  guttse  under  the  taenia,  while 
the  mutules  are  omitted  entirely,  and  a  row  of  dentils 
and  bed  moldings  is  inserted  under  the  soffit  of  the  corona. 
It  will  also  be  observed  that  in  this  case  the  column  is 
not  fluted,  and  stands  upon  the  stylobate  or  plinth  with- 
out a  base,  while  the  capital  is  molded  after  the  Tuscan 
model. 

19.  In  the  typical  Roman-Doric,  Fig.  12,  the  pedestal 
is  higher  in  proportion  to  its  width  than  the  Tuscan,  and  its 
base  exhibits  more  moldings  than  does  the  latter.  The 
addition  of  a  subplinth  serves  to  raise  the  die  B  above  the 
ground  line  without  producing  too  broad  a  band  under  the 
base.  The  cornice  moldings  of  the  pedestal  are  much  like 
the  members  of  the  Tuscan  entablature,  and  show  another 
point  of  resemblance  between  these  two  orders.  The  base 
of  the  column  D  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  Tuscan 
order,  with  the  slight  addition  of  a  bead  molding  between 
the  torus  and  the  fillet.  The  column  is  fluted  with  shallow 
grooves  that  meet  in  an  arris,  as  in  the  Greek  order,  but, 
unlike  the  latter,  they  die  out  or  terminate  below  the  line 
c  d,  which  marks  the  apophyge  of  the  shaft  at  the  base. 
The  capital  F  of  the  column  is  decidedly  more  Tuscan  than 
Greek.  It  is  separated  from  the  shaft  by  a  projecting  fillet 
and  bead,  which  in  this  position  is  called  an  astragal. 
Instead  of  the  annulets  beneath  the  echinus,  as  in  the  Greek 
capital,  we  have  simply  three  projecting  fillets,  and  the 
echinus  is  rounded  out  until  it  becomes  in  section  a  mere 


24  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

quarter  circle.  The  abacus  is  square,  but  has  a  crowning 
member,  and  it  has  panels  sunk  in  the  corners  of  its  soffit, 
as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines. 

20.  Doric  Entablature. — There  are,  in  fact,  two  dis- 
tinct systems  of  grouping  the  members  of  the  Roman-Doric 
entablature :  one,  as  in  the  Greek,  with  mutules  in  the  frieze, 
and  the  other — an  entirely  Roman  invention — with  a  course 
of  dentils  under  the  corona. 

The  mutular  Doric  is  the  order  shown  in  the  drawing 
plate ;  and,  as  will  be  at  once  observed,  its  entablature  bears 
but  a  slight  resemblance  to  the  Greek  model.  The  archi- 
trave G  is  divided  into  two  facias,  the  upper  one  projecting 
slightly  over  the  lower  one,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  the 
Greek-Ionic.  The  triglyphs  of  the  frieze  //  are  always  cen- 
tered over  the  axes  of  the  columns,  and,  consequently,  the 
metopes,  which  were  always  square  in  the  Greek  order,  are 
often  oblong  in  the  Roman,  with  the  longer  axis  set  either 
vertically  or  horizontally. 

The  mutules,  which  in  the  cornice  of  the  Parthenon  were 
set  over  each  triglyph  and  metope,  existed  over  the  tri- 
glyphs only  in  the  Roman- Doric  structiires,  and  the  soffit  of 
the  corona  between  them  was  paneled  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines. 

The  cornice  7  is  lighter  and  more  delicate  than  in  the 
Tuscan  order,  and  its  epitithidas  is  a  cyma  recta  instead  of 
an  echinus. 

21.  Roman-Ionic  Order. — The  result  of  the   Roman- 
izing of  the  Ionic  order  is  shown  in  Fig.  13,  and  is  scarcely 
more  successful  than  the  Doric.     The  Romans  never  seemed 
to  understand  the  possibilities  of  the  order  from  the  Erech- 
theum,  and,  as  a  consequence,  only  three  accredited  exam- 
ples of  the  Roman-Ionic  column  are  known  in  Rome  today. 
These  are  the  temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis,  the  temple  of  Con- 
cord, and  the  second  story  of  the  Theater  Marcellus.     The 
first  of  these  is  by  far  the  best,  its  volutes  retaining  much 
of  the  Greek  character,  while  the  last  is  the  simplest  and 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


25 


«'f 


,J 

-+- 


the 


plainest,  and  also 
the  smallest  in  its 
proportions;  but 
second  is  remark- 


able for  its  ugliness  in 
general,  and  the  inar- 
tistic arrangement  of 
its  volutes  in  partic- 
ular, which  spring  out 
diagonally  so  as  to  pre- 
sent four  equal  and  sim- 
ilar faces. 

The  example  shown  in 
Fig.  13  is  taken  prin- 
pally  from  the  first  of 
those  just  mentioned, 
with  only  such  altera- 
tions as  are  necessary  to 
bring  it  down  to  a  gener- 
al type.  In  it  we  find  the 
pedestal  slightly  longer 
in  the  die  than  was  the 
Doric,  while  the  cor- 
nice C  and  base  A  of  the 
pedestal  are  more  richly 
molded  than  in  either  of 
the  previous  orders.  The 
base  D  of  the  column, 
however,  is  of  the  famil- 
iar Attic  type  that  has 
already  been  described 
in  connection  with  the 
Greek- Ionic  order,  and 
exhibits  the  first  point 
of  strong  resemblance 
to  the  Greek  ancestor. 
The  shaft  of  the  column 
is  nearlv  of  the  same 


FIG.  13. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


height  as  the  Greek;  and,  in  many  examples,  is  grooved  by 
twenty-four  flutes  separated  by  fillets,  though  in  this  exam- 
ple there  are  but  twenty. 

By  a  strange  perversity,  however,  when  we  arrive  at  the 
capital,  we  meet  a  striking  difference  from  the  Athenian 
order.  In  the  columns  of  the  portico  of  the  Erechtheum, 
we  have  a  necking,  between  the  echinus  of  the  capital  and 
the  astragal  of  the  column;  but  in  the  Roman-Ionic,  the 
flutes  of  the  shaft  extend  almost  to  the  eyes  of  the  volutes. 
In  their  Doric  order  the  Romans  inserted  a  necking  above, 
which  did  not  exist  in  the  Greek  order  and  must  have  been 
borrowed  from  the  Attic- Ionic,  or,  possibly,  from  the  Tus- 
can ;  but  when  they  adopted  the  Ionic  order,  they  seem  to 
have  taken  especial  pains  to  omit  the  detail  that,  according 
to  previous  appearances,  they  particularly  admired.  For 
some  reason,  they  omitted  this  necking,  and  the  Roman- 
Ionic  capital  has  a  flat,  crushed  appearance  in  consequence, 
as  shown.  The  Roman- Ionic  volute  contains  but  one 
band,  while  that  of  the  Greeks  possessed  three,  though 
there  are  instances  where  a  single  band  was  coiled  in  the 

capital  of  the  Greek 
order,  as  in  the  temple 
on  the  Ilissus  River, 
Fig.  6.  But  the  Ionic 
order  reached  the  ze- 
nith of  its  perfection 
in  the  Erechtheum,  and 
it  is  with  the  details  of 
that  building  we  must 
compare  any  subsequent 
Ionic  constructions. 

The  architrave  G  and 
frieze  H  of  the  Roman 
order  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  the  Greek,  but  between  the  frieze  //  and 
corona  of  /  is  inserted  a  row  of  dentils  with  upper  and 
lower  bed  moldings,  which  cast  a  serrated  shadow  and 
emphasize  the  projection  of  the  corona. 


FIG.  14. 


§  4=  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  27 

22.  The  Ionic  capital  above  referred  to  in  the  temple  of 
Concord  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  J4.     It  is  shown  here,  not  on 
account   of  its  architectural  beauty,  for  it  has  none,  but 
because  in  certain  classes  of  early  Renaissance  work,  this 
style  of  cap  was  redesigned  by  Palladio  and  used  in  com- 
binations where  its  defects  were  not  so  glaring.     The  prin- 
ciple on  which  this  cap  is  designed  is  that  the  volutes  a  are 
growing  out  and  curling  over  the  edge  of  the  contracted 
echinus  £,  while  the  whole  is  covered  with  an  eight-sided 
abacus  c,  strongly  resembling  the  Corinthian.     The  space 
under  the  abacus  and  between  the  volutes  is  filled  with  a 
carved  rosette,  or,  in   a  few   instances,  with  an   animal's 
head. 

23.  Roman-Corinthian  Order. — We  now  come  to  the 
Corinthian,  which  we  may  consider  a  typical  Roman  order. 
There  is  but  one  example  of  richly  foliated  capitals  in  all 
Greek  art,  and  the  modern  Corinthian  order,  though  prob- 
ably taken  from  it,  bears  but  a  general  resemblance  to  its 
prototype.     We  have  gone  into  the  details  of  the  Greek- 
Corinthian  capital,  and  the  Roman  style  will  only  be  dwelt 
upon  where  it  contrasts  with  the  details  of  the  Greek.     The 
Roman-Corinthian  capital,    shown  at   /%    Fig.    15,    has   two 
rows  of  leaves,  eight  in  each  row,  so  disposed  that  of  the 
taller  ones  composing  the  upper  row,  one  comes  in  the  mid- 
dle, beneath  each  face  of  the  abacus,  and  the  lower  leaves 
alternate  with  the  upper  ones,  coming  between  the  stems 
of  the  latter;    so  that,  in  the  first,  or  lower  tier  of  leaves, 
there  is  in  the  middle  of  each  face,  a  space  between  two 
leaves    occupied   by   the    stem    of    the    central   leaf   above 
them. 

24.  Fig.  15  is  not  taken  from  any  particular  edifice,  but 
is  compiled  from  a  number  of  different  structures,  in  order 
to  get  a  general  type  of  the  order.    .  The  shaft  here  is  fluted 
with  twenty-four  flutes,  though  in  many  of  the  best  examples 
it  is  not  fluted  at  all.     The  portico  of  the  Pantheon  possesses 
one  of  the  handsomest  examples  of  the  Corinthian  order  in 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


7 


f-  h  r 

JJiJUULTLOJULd 

h 
f 

7 

Rome,  but  the  granite  columns  are  left  unfluted,  and  their 

surfaces  are  highly 
polished,  to  com- 
pensate for  the 
omission.  The  base 
of  the  Corinthian  column 
varies  somewhat  in  dif- 
ferent examples,  but  is 
most  frequently  an  en- 
riched variation  of  the 
Greek-Attic.  It  is  scarce- 
ly necessary  to  comment 
on  the  pedestal  of  either 
the  Corinthian  or  Com- 
posite orders,  as  there  is 
no  change  from  the  ped- 
estal of  the  previously 
described  orders,  except 
an  elongation  of  the  die 
and  an  increase  of  the 
number  of  the  moldings 
that  ornament  its  top  C 
and  base  A.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  base  D 
of  the  column,  the  only 
change  from  the  previous 
orders  being  an  increase 
of  the  members  between 
the  two  torus  moldings. 
The  shaft  E  of  the  col- 
umn is  but  slightly  longer 
than  in  the  Ionic  order, 
but  the  increase  in  the 
height  of  the  capital 
makes  the  entire  column 
ten  diameters  high.  The 
entablature,  however,  is  very  different  from  any  we  have 
yet  described.  The  architrave  G  is  divided  into  three 


FIG.  15. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


horizontal  bands,  or  facias,  as  was  the  Ionic,  but  instead  of 

i  a  plain  projection 
/  of  one  facia  beyond 
7 — I  the  other,  they  are 
separated  by  a  number 

AJpJJLOXIlJUUIJLfU  of  different  small  mold- 

ings,  which,  in  nearly 
every  instance,  were 
carved  and  enriched  al- 
^-,  most  to  excess.  The 

frieze  H  is  here  shown 
as  plain,  but  the  ma- 
jority of  examples  show 
it  carved  in  high  re- 
lief. The  cornice  / 
exhibits  the  greatest 
alteration  from  the  pre- 
vious orders  that  we 
have  yet  seen.  A  row 
of  dentils  are  support- 
ed by  a  cyma  reversa 
immediately  above  the 
frieze,  similar  to  the 
Ionic  arrangement;  but 
immediately  above  this 
we  have  a  heavy  ovolo 
supporting  a  row,  of 
course,  of  modi/lions.' 


25.     A   modillloii  is 

the  projecting  bracket 
supporting  the  corona 
of  the  Corinthian  en- 
tablature. These  brack- 
ets possess  a  volute 
somewhat  similar  to 
that  of  the  Ionic  capi- 


tal, but  curved  in  the  opposite  direction. 


30  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

2(>.  Composite  Order. — Between  the  Corinthian  and 
Composite  orders  there  is  very  little  difference  except  in 
the  size  of  the  volutes,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  cap- 
ital of  the  column,  there  is  scarcely  any  difference  in  the 
proportions  of  their  parts.  Fig.  1C  shows  the  general 
form  of  this  essentially  Roman  composition,  but  omitting 
entirely  the  ornamentation  of  the  frieze  and  moldings, 
which  is  as  much  a  part  of  this  order  as  the  triglyphs 
are  of  the  Doric.  Ornamentation,  as  a  rule,  forms  no  part 
of  the  order  that  it  enriches,  and,  consequently,  should  not 
be  considered  a  part  of  the  structure  of  the  order,  but 
the  Composite  order  was  invented  by  the  Romans  for  no 
other  purpose  than  to  carry  heavy  ornamentation;  in  fact, 
it  was  the  excessive  and  extravagant  ornamentation  of 
the  Corinthian  order  that  caused  the  Composite  to  spring 
into  existence,  and  our  example  is,  therefore,  not  com- 
plete until  it  receives  such  ornamentation  as  may  be 
appropriate  to  its  purpose.  The  general  form  is  here 
given,  and  the  application  of  ornament  will  be  discussed 
later,  in  its  proper  place. 

The  pedestal  of  the  Composite  order  is  almost  identical 
with  that  of  the  Corinthian,  there  being  but  a  few  slight 
changes  in  the  moldings  of  its  base  and  its  cap,  while  the 
die  is  a  trifle  longer.  The  base,  shaft,  and  capital  of  the 
column  are  the  same  height  as  the  Corinthian,  and  with 
the  exception  of  the  capital  are  almost  the  same  in  design. 
The  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice  have  the  same  rela- 
tive proportions  as  in  the  previous  order,  but  are  treated 
somewhat  more  elaborately  in  the  subdivisions  of  their 
parts. 

The  Composite  capital  is  a  combination  of  the  Cor- 
inthian and  the  Ionic  capital  from  the  Roman  temple  of 
Concord,  heretofore  referred  to.  It  is  not  an  artistic 
combination,  but  its  broad,  strong  volutes  give  an  unus- 
ual surface  on  which  to  carve  florid  ornament,  and,  as 
such,  it  suited  exactly  the  later-day  admirers  of  every- 
thing strictly  Roman.  It  suits  its  place  in  modern  art 
very  well,  when  in  proper  handling,  but  the  Renaissance 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  31 

architects  were  conspicuous  in  Italy  by  the  interior  appli- 
cation of  the  Composite  order  in  every  spot  where  it  did 
not  belong. 

27.  The    Roman    Acanthus. — The    acanthus    leaves 
under  the  Roman   modillions  and  those   around  the  bells 
of    the    Corinthian    capitals    are    placed,    one    before    the 
other,  stiffly  and  inartistically ;    they  are   not  even  bound, 
together  by  the  necking  at  the  top  of  the  shaft,  but  appear 
to  have  been  cut  off  to  rest  directly  upon  it.     It  will  be 
remembered  that  in  the  capital  of  the  Egyptian   column, 
where  the  stems  of  the  flowers  are  arranged  around  the 
bell,  they  appear  to  be  continued  through  the  necking  of 
the  column,  and  at  the  same  time  express  a  beauty  and 
a  truth. 

The  great  facility  that  the  Roman  system  of  decoration 
affords  for  the  application  of  this  acanthus  ornament  to  any 
form  and  in  any  direction,  is  the  lamentable  cause  of  the 
invasion  of  this  ornament  into  most  modern  work.  Its 
design  requires  little  thought  and  is  so  easily  manufac- 
tured that  it  has  encouraged  designers  in  an  indolent  neg- 
lect of  one  of  their  especial  provinces — that  of  invention. 
In  the  use  of  the  acanthus  leaf,  the  Romans  showed  but 
little  art.  They  received  it  from  the  Greeks  most  beauti- 
fully conventionalized,  and  though  they  went  nearer  to 
the  general  outline  of  the  leaf,  they  exaggerated  the 
siirface  decoration.  The  Greeks  confined  themselves  to 
expressing  the  principles  of  the  foliation  of  the  leaf, 
and  bestowed  great  care  in  the  delicate  undulations  of  its 
surface. 

28.  Character  of  Roman  Ornament. — As  said  here- 
tofore,  Roman  ornament  consists  essentially  of   one  scroll 
growing  out  of  another  and  encircling  a  flower  or  a  groiip 
of  leaves,  as  shown  in  Fig.  17,  which  is  a  characteristic 
piece  of  Roman  ornament.     This  is  the  principle  of  Greek 
ornament,  and  though  the  Romans  borrowed  the  pinnciplc, 
they  omitted  the  Greek  refinement. 


32 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


The  most  characteristic  method  of  using  the  acanthus 
leaf  in  Roman  art  can  be  seen  in  the  Roman  concep- 
tion of  the  Corinthian 
capital,  Fig.  15.  The 
amount  of  design  that 
can  be  obtained  by 
working  on  this  prin- 
ciple of  Roman  orna- 
ment—  of  leaf  within 
leaf  and  leaf  over  leaf 
— is  very  limited,  and 
it  was  not  until  the 
principle  of  one  leaf 
growing  out  of  an- 
other in  a  continuous 
line  was  abandoned, 

for     the     adoption     of 
FIG.  17. 

a    continuous     stem 

throwing    off    ornaments    on    either    side,    that    the    pure 
conventional  ornament  received  any  development. 

29.  Painted  Decorations. — The  painted  decorations 
of  Roman  art  arc  comparatively  few;  the  style  was  some- 
what similar  to  what  we  see  at  Pompeii — an  adoption  from 
the  Greek,  executed  in  the  hands  of  the  Roman  artists. 
The  coloring  is  hardly  worth  great  consideration,  as  it 
possessed  nothing  of  an  original  character,  and  the  stu- 
dent should  bear  in  mind  that  all  art  forms  of  Rome  are 
borrowed  forms.  Her  construction  she  inherited  from 
Etruria,  and  combined  it  with  the  art  obtained  in  Greece. 
In  fact,  it  might  be  said  that  there  is  no  true  Roman 
style,  that  is  to  say,  executed  by  Romans  themselves,  for 
the  Roman  was  essentially  a  warrior  and  a  politician,  and 
his  art  works  were  designed  by  the  subjugated  Greek  and 
his  structural  works  put  into  effect  by  descendants  from 
the  Etruscans. 

The  transition  of  Greek  ornament  into  the  styles  of 
Europe  was  simply  delayed  by  the  conquest  of  Greece 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  33 

by  Rome,  and,  during  the  delay  so  caused,  the  style 
was  degraded,  and  spread  throughout  the  country  in 
that  condition. 


ROMANESQUE    ORNAMENT. 

30.  Development    of   tlie    Romanesque    Style. — In 

considering  the  Romanesque  style,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  Roman  Empire  covered  almost  the  entire 
continent  of  Europe,  and  that  Roman  art  had  penetrated 
as  far  west  as  Spain  and  as  far  north  as  England  and  the 
Baltic  Sea.  After  the  downfall  of  the  Western  Roman 
Empire,  the  conquering  races  from  the  North  attempted 
to  carry  out  the  Roman  style  of  building  as  they  found 
it  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  endeavor  to 
apply  these  art  forms  under  a  new  system  of  religion, 
and  influenced  by  different  conditions  of  government  and 
living,  together  with  the  necessity  of  practicing  a  rigid 
economy  in  material,  caused  an  alteration  of  the  original 
Roman  style  and  brought  about  the  style  that  we  now 
consider  Romanesque. 

31.  The  fall   of   the  Western    Roman   Empire,    in  470 
A.  D.,  therefore    marked    the  beginning  of  a  new  architec- 
tural era  throughout  all  Europe  (except  possibly  in  the  East- 
ern Empire,  with  its  capital  at  Byzantium),  and  the  so  called 
dark  ages  that  followed  this  event  may  be  considered  as  a 
formative  period  of  western  civilization  during  which  the 
barbaric  conquerors  of  Rome  became  gradually  Christian- 
ized and  were  subjected  to  the  authority  and  educational 
influences  of  the  Church. 

Under  these  conditions  a  new  architectural  style  was 
developed,  founded  on  the  traditions  of  the  earlier  Chris- 
tian builders,  but  modified  in  different  regions  by  local 
influences.  The  prevailing  characteristics  of  the  style 
were  at  first  essentially  Roman,  for  Rome  soon  recovered 
her  antique  prestige  as  the  leading  city  of  Europe,  and 
the  Roman  monuments  covering  the  soil  of  Southern 


34  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

Europe  were  a  constant  object  lesson  to  the  builders  at 
that  time. 

32.  Influence   of  the   Chui-ch. — Romanesque   archi- 
tecture was  distinctly  ecclesiastical.     Civilization  and  culture 
emanated  directly  from  the  Church,  and  the  requirements 
and    discipline    of   the    religious    orders   gave   form  to   the 
builders'  art. 

Corinthian  columns,  marble  incrustations,  splendid  mosa- 
ics, etc.  were  not  to  be  obtained  in  the  forest  lands  of  France 
and  Germany,  and  the  priests  caused  to  be  erected  with 
unskilled  labor  churches  of  stone,  and  the  struggle  with  this 
structural  problem  underlies  the  entire  system  of  Roman- 
esque design. 

33.  System  of  Building  Under  Roman  Domination. 

The  Romans,  when  they  wished  to  erect  grand  monuments 
of  public  utility,  could  send  to  the  spot,  no  matter  how 
remote,  an  army  of  soldiers,  and,  by  their  tyrannical  system 
of  government,  compel  the  very  inhabitants  of  the  locality 
to  desist  from  all  their  employments  and  work  for  the 
emperor  of  Rome.  They  thus  achieved  by  a  multitude  of 
hands  those  prodigious  results  that  today  stand  monuments 
not  only  of  their  enterprise  but  also  of  their  despotism. 

Had  the  builders  of  the  Middle  Ages  desired  to  pursue 
this  course,  where  would  they  have  found  the  army  of  wrork- 
men  ?  In  countries  not  only  without  stone  but  without 
money  to  buy  it,  without  beasts  of  burden  to  transport 
material  if  they  could  buy  it,  without  even  roads  over  which 
to  travel,  how  could  these  people  make  any  attempt  to  follow 
the  course  of  their  Roman  predecessors? 

Bearing  these  facts  in  mind  as  we  study  Romanesque 
ornament,  we  will  readily  see  in  the  earlier  examples  an 
attempt  to  copy  Roman  art — an  attempt  that  failed  as  a 
duplication  of  an  antique  style,  but  was  eminently  successful 
in  the  development  of  a  new  style  that  was  much  more 
rational  than  the  one  back  to  which  the  Middle-Age  builder 
had  been  looking. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


35 


34.  In  Fig.  18  is  shown  the  capital  of  a  column,  the 
moldings  of  which  and  the  crude  formations  of  whose 
leaves  are  easily  traceable  to  the  Roman-Corinthian  order; 


FIG.  18. 


FIG.  19. 


and  the  capital  shown  in  Fig.  19,  though  entirely  different 
from  that  shown  in  Fig.  18,  also  illustrates  the  influence 
of  classic  art  and  the  Corinthian  order  in  the  formation  of 
the  style  at  this  period. 

More  clearly,  perhaps,  than  either  of  these  is  the  base  shown 


FIG.  21. 


in  Fig.  20,  which  dates  back  to  the  eleventh  century.  Here 
the  moldings  are  almost  identical  with  those  seen  on  the 
classic  columns.  In  Fig.  21  is  shown  a  base  of  later  date, 
which  exhibits  a  radical  departure  from  the  classic  lines. 


36  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

35.     The  frieze  shown  in  Fig.  22  is  taken  from  an  exam- 
ple in  Southern  Germany,  dating  back  to  the  twelfth  century 


FIG.  22. 


FIG.  23. 


FIG.  24. 


The  treatment  of  the  leaf  forms  there  clearly  shows  a  classic 
origin,  but  the  boldness  of  the  treatment  shows  an  inclination 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


to  become  independent  of  the  traditions  of  the  classic- 
style,  and  in  Fig.  23  the  ornament,  taken  from  a  French 
church  of  the  twelfth  century,  shows  a  decided  freedom  from 
the  governing  rules  of  classic  design,  although  the  character 
of  the  curves  and  proportions  of  the  surface  covered  is 
strongly  suggestive  of  the  Greek  anthemion.  -In  Fig.  24  is 
shown  a  most  independent  example,  where  we  have  the  main 
running  stem  and  the  branches  from  alternating  sides,  while 
the  small  pyramid  forms  cut  in  the  main  stem  appear  here 
and  are  characteristic  of  the  Romanesque  period. 


In  Fig.  25  is  shown  an  example  of  German  twelfth-century 
art  that  shows  the  possible  influence  of  Celtic  work.  Observe 
that,  complicated  as  this  design  at  first  appears,  it  is  really 
very  simple  in  construction  and  contains  only  one  leaf  form 
arranged  in  two  positions.  The  entire  free  flowing  lines  are 
then  woven  around  these  forms 
to  produce  a  most  satisfactory 
effect. 


3(>.  In  repeating  ornament 
and  diaper  patterns,  Fig.  26 
shows  a  simple  arrangement  of 
circles  from  the  church  of 
St.  Denis,  at  Paris,  dating  back 
to  the  twelfth  century,  while 


Fin.  90. 


38  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

Fig.  27  shows  a  diaper  pattern  from  the  Lincoln  Cathedral, 

in  England,  of  the  same  period, 
showing  a  radical  difference  in 
style  on  account  of  the  remote- 
ness from  Rome. 

In  Figs.  28  and  29  are  shown 
two  patterns  taken  from  stained- 
glass  windows,  the  former  of  Ger- 
man design  and  the  latter  French. 
The  simplicity  of  the  design  in 
each  case  is  its  distinguishing 
characteristic,  and,  though  in  ap- 
pearance somewhat  complicated,  a  little  study  eliminates  all 


FIG. 


FIG.  29. 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  39 

complications,  and  shows  the  geometrical  principle  on  which 
it  is  constructed  to  be  of  utmost  simplicity. 

37.     Origin   of  Gothic  and  Byzantine  Ornament. — 

From  these  few  examples,  with  which  the  artists  of  the 
Romanesque  period  decorated  their  structural  details,  we 
see  that  the  application  of  Romanesque  forms  was  simple — 
simple  from  a  necessit)?-  of  economy,  and  simple  on  account 
of  a  freedom  of  mind  devoid  of  any  art  traditions. 

The  builder  and  designer  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  had  no  memories  of  Rome  or  Greece  to  follow,  and 
no  historical  forms  that  had  been  handed  down  from  genera- 
tion to  generation,  to  copy  which  was  almost  required  by 
law,  and  to  depart  from  which  would  have  been  a  sacrilege 
in  the  eyes  of  his  country.  The  medieval  builder  attacked 
his  problem  with  no  other  tools  than  his  eye  and  his 
brain,  and  gradually  developed  the  form  of  art  that  we  call 
Romanesque,  and  that  culminated  in  two  entirely  new 
styles',  both  in  construction  and  ornamentation — the  Gothic 
in  the  West  and  the  Byzantine  in  the  East. 


BYZANTINE  OKNAMENT. 

38.  Oriental  Influence. — In  the  East,  around  the  city 
of  Byzantium,  Romanesque  ornament  was  influenced  by  the 
art  of  Assyria  and  Persia.  In  fact,  its  entire  character 
became  tinged  with  an  oriental  spirit,  and,  in  the  course  of 
the  next  three  or  four  centuries,  it  developed  into  a  new  and 
entirely  different  style  of  architecture  and  art,  known  as 
Byzantine.  The  old  Roman  forms  became  obsolete  and 
gave  place  to  new  forms,  original,  beautiful,  and  artistic. 

It  will  readily  be  understood  that  there  would  be  a  period 
of  transition  between  the  slowly  developing  Romanesque 
and  the  finished  Byzantine  style,  and  it  is  with  such  exam- 
ples of  ornament  as  date  from  this  period  of  transition  that 
uncertainty  as  to  their  proper  classification  arises.  It  is 
more  difficult  to  distinguish  between  these  styles,  whose 


40  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §4 

transition  took  place  peacefully,    than  between  the  Greek 
and  Roman  styles,  where  the  transition  was  sudden. 

39.  The  Romans  had  wealth,  ambition,  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,   taste,   but  their   taste  was  tainted   with  vulgarity, 
through  their  ostentatious  display  and  desire  to  express  their 
power  as  a  nation.     Consequently,  they  seized  boldly  upon 
the  Greek  art  forms  and  elaborated  them  indiscriminately  in 
their  Roman  designs.     The  refinement  and  delicacy  of  the 
Greek  style  was  thus  immediately  wiped  out,  and  there  is 
little  difficulty  in  distinguishing  between  the  ornament  of 
Greece  and  that  of  Rome ;  whereas,  between  the  ornament 
of  the  Romanesque  'and  that  of  the  Byzantine  period  there 
is  such  a  gradual  change  that  distinction  is  in  many  cases 
impossible. 

40.  llagia  Sophia. — Byzantine  art,  though  spread  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  throughout  the  continent  of  Europe, 
originated  in  and  around  the  city  of  Constantinople,  formerly 
called  Byzantium.     The  great  church  of  Hagia  Sophia  was 
built  by  the  Emperor  Justinian,  in  the  year  532  A.  D.,  and 
is   the   earliest   monument   purely   Byzantine    in  style.     A 
peculiarity  of  this  monument  and  its  style  is  the  fact  that 
we  find   so  perfect  an  example  of  an  original  style  with  so 
little  transition  toward  it. 

The  emperor  declared  that  he  would  erect  a  church,  "That 
should  be  the  grandest  monument  ever  built  by  man, "  and 
the  governors  of  even  the  most  distant  provinces  of  the 
empire  were  ordered  to  ransack  all  the  ancient  Roman 
buildings  for  sculptures,  precious  marbles,  and  works  of  art, 
to  be  used  in  this  edifice.  Eight  columns  of  pure  white 
marble  were  brought  from  Palmyra,  and  eight  more  of  deep- 
green  marble  were  stripped  from  the  temple  of  Diana,  at 
Ephesus,  and  shiploads  of  costly  relics  were  brought  from 
all  sections  of  the  empire  to  become  a  part  of  this  great 
structure. 

Ten  thousand  men  toiled  night  and  day  for  six  years,  and 
the  royal,  treasury  and  private  purse  of  the  emperor  were 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


41 


42 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


exhausted  by  the  prodigious  expense.  But  the  church  was 
built,  and  is  certainly  one  of  the  grandest  architectural 
monuments  ,  the  world  has  ever  seen.  The  plan  and  con- 
struction of  this  edifice  is  no  more  remarkable  than  the  scale 
and  treatment  of  its  interior  decoration  (see  Fig.  30),  and  it 
stands  to  Byzantine  architecture  as  the  Parthenon  stood  to 
the  Greek.  Unfortunately  it  is  now  converted  into  a  Moham- 
medan mosque,  and  the  severity  of  the  Mohammedan  religion 
required  that  its  beautiful  interior  decorations  should  be 
covered  from  sight  by  repeated  applications  of  whitewash. 
However,  we  have  been  able  to  secure  reproductions  of  some 
of  these  great  ornaments  so  characteristic  of  the  Byzantine 
style. 

41.  Examples  of  Byzantine  Style. — At  Ravenna, 
which  was  the  seat  of  government  of  the  Eastern  Empire 
under  Justinian,  the  church  of  San  Vitale  is  also  a  fine 
example  of  the  Byzantine  style,  and  at  Ravenna,  Byzantine 
art  reached  its  height  in  this  edifice. 

Venice  also  felt  largely  the  Byzantine  influence,  and  the 
church  of  St.  Mark,  built  in  the  eleventh  century,  is  a  monu- 
ment patterned  largely  after  the  plan  and  decoration  of  Hagia 
Sophia ;  and,  extending  as  far  south  as  Sicily,  we  have  the 
cathedral  of  Monreale,  near  Palermo,  showing  strong  Byzan- 
tine influences,  but  at  the  same  time  possessing  many  details 

that  are  so  strongly  character- 
istic of  the  Romanesque  style 
that  it  is  difficult  in  many  cases 
to  classify  them. 


4:2.  The  capital  shown  in 
Fig.  31  is  from  one  of  the 
columns  in  the  first  tier  of 
arches  in  the  church  of  Hagia 
Sophia,  at  Constantinople.  The 
scrolls  in  the  upper  part  of  this 
column  undoubtedly  have  their 
origin  in  the  Ionic  order,  and,  though  the  entire  capital  is 


FIG.  31. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


43 


FIG.  32. 


decorated  with  the  conventionalized  acanthus  leaf,  observe 
how  widely  different  it  is  from  any  Roman  model.  Here 
the  block  of  the  capital  is  sound  and  heavy,  and  at  its  bot- 
tom is  a  foliated  ring  that  seems  to  bind  it  together,  while 

the  carved  leafwork  grows 

out  of  the  top  of  the  column 
and  enters  materially  into 
the  construction  of  the  capi- 
tal itself. 

Another  Byzantine  capi- 
tal, shown  in  Fig.  32,  is 
taken  from  another  church 
in  Constantinople,  built 
about  the  same  time  as 
Hagia  Sophia,  but  less 
original  in  detail.  Here 
the  heavy  scrolls  project 
from  the  angles  of  the  capital  very  much  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  volutes  in  the  temple  of  Concord  at  Rome,  and 
the  place  usually  occupied  by  the  abacus  is  filled  by  a  heavy 
semipyramidal  form  on  which  the  ornament  seems  to  be 
applied  as  a  surface  decoration  more  than  a  component  part 
of  the  construction. 

The  effect  of  this  illustrates,  however,  a  radical  departure 
from  the  traditions  that  limitated  the  architectural  designs 

in  Roman  art ;  and  even 
when  we  arrive  at  Byzan- 
tine capitals  of  the  eleventh 
century,  as  seen  in  St.  Mai  k's, 
at  Venice,  Fig.  33,  we  can 
still  observe  the  influence  of 
Roman  art,  but  thoroughly 
subservient  to  the  Byzantine 
school  of  design. 

In  Fig.  33,  the  volutes  at 

FlG  33  the  top  of  the  column,  the 

shape   of   the   capital   as   it 
swells  out  to  the  abacus,  and  the  general  character  of  the 


44 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


entire  detail  are  strongly  suggestive  of  its  Roman- Corinthian 
origin;  but  the  strictly  conventional  treatment  of  the  leaves, 
the  character  of  the  scroll  around  the  abacus,  and  the  bind- 
ing together   of  the   ornament  in 
the  construction  show  plainly  the 
influence  of  the  work  in  the  East. 

Fig.  34  is  another  example  of 
Byzantine  capital,  from  Italy,  and 
is  even  more  freed  from  Roman 
influence  than  that  of  the  previous 
example.  The  long  elliptical 
curves  formed  by  the  leaves,  the 
sharp-pointed  lobes,  and  the  deep 
indentations  are  all  suggestive  of 
its  Byzantine  origin,  while  the 
little  row  of  dentils  so  uselessly 

arranged  around  the  top  show  the  difficulty  of  producing 
any  work  in  Italy  without  some  taint  of  classic  spirit. 

43.  The  running-  ornament  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  35, 
which  example  is  taken  from  the  same  church  as  Fig.  32, 
where  the  leaf  form  is  thoroughly  conventional,  and,  though 


FIG.  34. 


FIG.  35. 

tending  slightly  toward  a  scroll,  is  governed  by  a  continuous 
wavy  line,  from  opposite  sides  of  which  the  leaf  forms  branch. 
Fig.  36  is  an  example  of  geometrically  arranged  running 
ornament  from  Hagia  Sophia.  The  main  geometrical  forms, 
as  will  be  observed,  are  circles,  but  these  circles  are  not 
formed  complete  in  themselves,  but  result  from  the  crossing 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


45 


and  intersection  of  two  wavy  lines  precisely  the  same  in 
general  character  as  the  wavy  line  that  forms  the  governing- 
element  of  Fig.  35.  Instead  of  branching  foliage  from  oppo- 


FlG.  3f>. 


site  sides  of  the  lines,  in  the  latter  case,  however,  geometrical 
figures  are  arranged  within,  and  foliated  forms  that  have  the 
cross  of  St.  George  for  their  guiding  element  are  used  to 
form  prominent  details  of  the  design. 


44.     Going  back  again   now  to  the  church  of  St.  Mark, 
built  in  the  eleventh  century,  we  have  a  wall  decoration 


46 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


between  two  arches,  shown  in  Fig.  37.  Tracing  out  the 
outline  of  this  running  surface  ornament,  it  will  be  observed 
that  the  same  wavy  line  governs  its  principle  and  direction, 
as  in  the  case  of  Fig.  35 ;  but  a  close  study  will  show  that  the 
branching  of  leaves  from  one  side  is  accompanied  by  a  branch 
from  the  opposite  side,  so  near  that  the  general  feeling  is 
of  a  scroll  growing  out  of  a  scroll,  somewhat  after  the  order 
of  classic  art.  Above  this  ornament,  however,  the  semi- 
circular ring  is  ornamented  by  geometrical  devices  within  a 
governing  outline,  precisely  similar  to  that  seen  at  Hagia 
Sophia,  Fig.  36, 

In  all  these  examples,  the  student  will  observe  that  the 
character  of  the  leaf  is  particularly  uniform,  that  it  is  in  the 
principle  of  the  decoration  that  we  find  the  greatest  variation, 
and  that  the  variation  in  this  character  only  amounts  to  a 
greater  or  lesser  display  of  oriental  or  classic  influence. 


FIG.  38. 


45.  Examples  of  Byzantine  art  found  in  "Greece  are 
usually  purer  than  any  found  in  Italy,  as  Roman  art  and 
influence  never  secured  a  thoroughly  characteristic  foothold 
in  the  conquered  country.  Byzantine  art  was  built  on  Greek 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


47 


art  in  the  first  place,  and  examples  of  it  on  Greek  soil  are 
usually  of  excellent  character.  Besides  this,  Greek  examples 
have  not  been  mutilated  by  Mohammedan  invasion  to  the 
extent  that  we  find  them  in  other  eastern  countries,  and  the 
color  treatment  and  contrast  can  be  best  studied  there. 

46.  Ceiling  Decoration. — Fig.  38  shows  an  example  of 
ceiling  decoration  from  the  church  of  St.  George  at  Thessa- 
lonica.     The  circular  ornament  within  the  border  was  exe- 
cuted in  red  on  a  blue   ground,   though   the   hollow-sided 
square  in  the  center  of  it  was  gold,  as  were  also  the  triangles 
at  the  four  corners.     The  peculiar  outline  of  the  device  adja- 
cent to  the  four  sides  of  the  interior  rectangle  is  suggestive 
of  Arabian  origin,  and  is  exceedingly  ingenious  in  its  method 
of  preserving  symmetry  and  preventing  awkward  repetition. 
The  border  around  this  was  executed  entirely  in  gold  on  a 
blue  ground,  with  the  exception  of  the  extreme  outside  line, 
which  was  red. 

47.  Wall  Decoration. — Fig.  39  is  an  example  of  wall 


FIG.  39. 


decoration  from  the  same  edifice,  the  rectangles  and  circles 
containing  the  leaves  and  crosses,  all  being  worked  with  a 


4S  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

plain  gold  round,  while  the  figures  and  half  of  the  smaller 
crosses  were  green  and  the  outlines  of  the  larger  crosses  and 
the  remaining  smaller  crosses  were  red.  The  effect  is  very 
rich,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  rectangles  and  smaller 
circles  shows  a  knowledge  of  surface  division  that  is  well 
carried  into  effect.  The  student's  attention  is  particularly 
called  to  the  fact  that  the  .shape  of  the  groundwork  between 
the  rectangles  is  also  crucial,  and  that  every  effort  is  made 
to  bring  that  symbolic  detail  into  prominent  display. 

48.  In  giving  examples  of  Byzantine  ornament,  nothing 
could  be  more  characteristic  than  the  stone  panels  herewith 
illustrated.  The  style  of  the  ornament  itself,  the  character 
of  the  carving,  and  the  development  of  the  geometrical  pat- 
tern are  all  details  that  are  shown  here  in  a  most  character- 
istic Byzantine  form. 


FIG.  40. 


49.  The  pierced  screen  shown  in  Fig.  40  is  from 
Ravenna,  and  illustrates  the  geometrical  pattern  based  on 
an  arrangement  of  circles  (somewhat  after  the  style  of  the 
Celtic  ornament),  in  which  is  carved  the  typical  Byzantine 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


49 


leaf.  The  cross  outlined  in  the  center  was  emphasized  in 
the  original  by  a  plating  of  gold,  and  the  spaces  around  the 
foliage  were  filled  with  birds  whose  peculiar  modeling  and 
conventional  outline  is  characteristic  of  the  Byzantine  style. 
Another  characteristic  of  the  style,  shown  clearly  in  this 
illustration,  is  the  sharp  angular  cutting  of  the  leaves,  the 
deep  circular  and  elliptical  openings  between  the  lobes  of 
two  adjacent  leaves,  and  the  tendency  of  the  whole  panel  to 
appear  in  high  relief  on  a  dark  ground  rather  than  to  be 
pierced  through  entirely. 

In  Fig.  41  is  shown  another  screen  of  the  same  character, 
where  the  interlaced  bands  that  form  the  geometrical  outline 


FIG.  41. 

of  the  foliated  ornament  were  originally  gilded,  and  the  leaf 
forms  carved  between  them  are  similar  to  those  in  Fig.  40. 

5O.  Fig.  42,  however,  shows  a  trend  in  a  different  direc- 
tion. Here  the  openings  in  the  screen  are  larger,  the  exterior 
portion  of  it  being  outlined  with  a  design  undoubtedly 
derived  from  the  Grecian  fret,  while  in  the  center  a  large 
Latin  cross  divides  the  panel  into  four  smaller  rectangles, 


50 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


each  filled  with  a  particular  device  symbolic  of  Christianity 
and  characteristic  of  the  Byzantine  style.  Observe  also  the 
running;  foliage  around  this  panel,  and  its  branching  leaves 
and  fruit,  alternately  from  opposite  sides,  and  note  the  differ- 


FlG.  42. 

ence  between  this  style  of  treating  foliage  and  that  of  the 
Roman  and  Greek  artists,  where  continuous  foliage  was 
accomplished  by  growing  one  spray  or  stem  out  of  a  calyx 
or  cup  from  which  a  scroll  emanated. 

51.  The  capital  of  the  column  shown  in  Fig.  43  is  also 
from  Ravenna,  and  the  peculiar  looking  birds  on  the  upper 
part,  as  well  as  the  sharply  indented  foliage,  are  character- 
istic of  this  style.  Here,  also,  is  seen  that  same  geometrical 
pattern  as  the  governing  outline  to  which  we  called  atten- 
tion in  Fig.  40,  and  also  the  wandering-vine  border  line, 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


51 


throwing  off  its  leaves  on  alternate  sides  in  a  similar  manner 
to  the  outline  in  Fig.  42. 

That  the  capital  of  the  column  is  cut  in  full  relief  is  clearly 
shown  by  the  fact  that  the  light  shines  through  the  screen 
work  on  to  the  stone  interior,  as  may  be  seen.  This  style 
of  capital  will  be  found  throughout  Northern  Italy  where 


FIG.  48. 


any  example  of  Byzantine  style  exists.  The  dark  portions 
of  it  were  originally  gilded,  and  must  certainly  have  pre- 
sented a  most  remarkable  effect. 


52.  Turning  to  St.  Mark's,  at  Venice,  Fig.  44,  we  find 
a  frieze  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  45,  the  lines  of  which  are 
based  on  identically  the  same  motives  as  the  screens  we 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


53 


have  already  studied;  but  the  carving-,  though  in  high  relief, 
does  not  pierce  the  screen,  and  the  border  of  the  panel,  as 
well  as  the  treatment  of  the  foliage  within  the  panel,  shows 
a  highly  developed  Byzantine  feeling.  Observe,  however, 


FIG.  45. 


the  influence  of  its  proximity  to  Rome  on  the  treatment  of 
the  scroll  forms.  In  the  central  part  of  the  panel  we  do 
not  have  the  running  vine,  with  its  leaves  branching  from 
each  side,  but  a  partly  controlled  tendency  to  grow  one 


54  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

scroll  out  of  another — a  tendency  that  is  so  well  kept  in 
submission  that  it  does  not  materially  affect  the  delicacy  of 
the  design. 

In  the  same  church,  we  find  the  panel  shown  in  Fig.  46, 
the  rounded  forms  of  which  are  not  often  found  in  this 
style.  Note,  however,  the  severe  conventionalism  of  the 
foliage  treatment,  and  also  the  independence  of  the  artist 


concerning  the  preservation  of  absolute  symmetry.  On 
one  side,  the  vine  runs  off  the  panel  both  at  the  top  and 
edge,  and,  on  the  other  side,  runs  off  the  panel  on  the 
top  only.  One  of  the  two  central  leaves  extends  over  the 
molding  of  the  panel  frame  ;  the  other  is  carved  entirely 
within  it. 

53.  In  Fig.  47  is  shown  a  well  at  Venice,  the  details  of 
which  illustrate  clearly  the  strong,  bold,  outline  effect  char- 
acteristic of  Byzantine  carving.  The  guilloche  border  around 
the  top  and  the  leaves  patterned  after  inverted  anthemions 
are  suggestive  of  classic  origin,  but  are  treated  with  such 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


55 


strong    Byzantine    effect   that    the   classic    taint    is   fairly 
obliterated. 

54.  Ingenuity  of  Byzantine  Ornament. — The  geo- 
metrical arrangements  in  Byzantine  ornament  are  exceed- 
ingly ingenious,  and  especially  remarkable  in  mosaic  work, 


FIG.  47. 

the  monotony  of  which  they  destroy  by  well  planned  and 
complicated  constructions  based  usually  upon  a  variation  of 
the  straight  line  and  the  right  angle. 

In  Fig.  48  is  shown  one  of  the  doorways  in  the  cathedral 
of  Monrcale,  near  Palermo,  around  which  mosaic  patterns 
are  inlaid  in  the  jambs  and  also  in  the  flanking  walls.  The 
pattern  of  this  mosaic  is  typical  of  examples  of  that  art  in 
the  Byzantine  style,  as  the  Byzantine  mosaics  can  nearly 
always  be  distinguished  from  the  Roman  mosaics  by  the 


56 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


fact  that  the  geometrical  construction  forms  an  integral  part 
of  the  design.  There  is  one  style  of  this  mosaic  ornament 
that  is  also  typical  of  the  Romanesque  period,  particularly 


FIG.  48. 


in  Italy.  This  consists  of  a  geometrical  arrangement  of 
lozenge-shaped  pieces  of  glass  in  a  complicated  series  of 
diagonal  lines,  the  directions  of  which  are  defined  and 
terminated  by  means  of  pieces  in  different  colors. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


57 


The  examples  of  this  work  in  Central  Italy  are  much 
simpler  than  those  of  the  southern  provinces  of  Sicily,  where 
the  influences  of  Saracenic  art  are  very  much  felt;  and  this 


mosaic  work,  as  observed  in  the  southern  provinces,  is  very 
difficult  to  classify  positively,  either  in  the  Romanesque  or 
the  Byzantine  style. 


58  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

55.  In  Fig.  49  are  shown  some  clustered  columns  from 
the  cathedral  of  Monreale.     One  group  of  four  columns  is 
richly  carved  with  the  interlaced  ornament  so  familiar  in  the 
examples  of  Byzantine  art,  while  the  adjacent  columns,  inlaid 
with  zigzag  lines  of  mosaic,  are  more  suggestive  of  Roman- 
esque art,  and  the  capitals  and  bases  of  both  sets  of  columns 
are  more  in  accordance  with  the  Romanesque  idea  than  with 
the  Byzantine.     This,  however,  may  be  largely  accounted  for 
when  we  consider  that  both  styles   were  merged  together 
in  Sicily  at  about  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  the 
examples  in  Figs.  48  and  49  are  here  given  in  order  that  the 
similarity  of  styles  may  be  carefully  studied. 

56.  Sculpture    in    Byzantine   Art. — Pure    Byzantine 
ornament    is    distinguished    by    broad-toothed   and    acute- 
pointed  leaves,  which  in  sculpture  are  beveled  at  the  edge 
and  are  deeply  chiseled  throughout  and  drilled  with  deep 
holes  at  the  springings  of  the  teeth.     The  running  foliage  is 
generally  thin  and  continuous.      The  ground,    whether  in 
mosaic  or  painted  work,  is  almost  universally  gold.     Thin 
interlaced   patterns   are   usually   preferred    to    geometrical 
designs,  and  the  introduction  of  animal  or  other  figures  is 
very  limited,  especially  in  sculpture,  and  in  painted  work  is 
confined  principally  to  holy  subjects  in  a  stiff  conventional 
style,  exhibiting  little  variety  of  feeling.      In  fact,  in  Byzan- 
tine art,  sculpture  is  a  very  secondary  importance. 

57.  Sculpture   in   Romanesque   Art. —  Romanesque 
ornament,  on  the  other  hand,  depended  mostly  on  sculpture 
for  its  effect.      It  is  rich  in  light  and  shade,  deep  cuttings 
and  massive  projections,  and  a  great  intermixture  of  figure 
subjects  of  every  kind  with  foliage  and  conventional  orna- 
ment.    The  place  filled  by  mosaic  work  in  the   Byzantine 
art,  in  the  Romanesque  is  supplied  generally  by  paint.      In 
colored  ornament,   animals  are   as  freely  introduced  as  in 
sculpture,  and  the  ground  no  longer  confined  to  gold,  but 
composed  of  blue,   red,  or  green.      In  other  respects,  how- 
ever, the  two  styles  are  very  much  alike. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  59 


ASIATIC  OKNAME:NT. 

58.  Characteristics  of  the  People. — Before  studying 
the  style  of  the  ornament  of  this  section  of  the  eastern 
hemisphere,  let  us  consider  how  different  are  the  character- 
istics of  this  people  from  the  European  nations  whose 
ornament  we  have  so  far  analyzed.  Oriental  people  are 
traditionally  immobile  in  character  and  unprogressive  in  their 
methods  of  business  and  manufacture.  The  processes  of 
weaving,  carving,  and  other  practices  of  art  design  are  trans- 
mitted carefully  and  faithfully  in  the  oriental  nations  from 
generation  to  generation,  and  it  is  therefore  practically 
impossible  to  assign  a  precise  date  to  any  one  production,  so 
similar  are  the  designs.  The  study  of  oriental  art  is  there- 
fore freed  from  any  minute  chronological  examination,  and 
the  student  is  able  to  consider  the  subject  in  a  broad  sense, 
considering  only  primary  and  original  styles  that  predomi- 
nate over  lesser  divisions  and  personal  modifications.  These 
styles  can  be  divided  into  three  general  groups:  (1)  Chinese 
and  Japanese,  (2)  Indian,  and  (3)  Arabian. 


CHINESE  AND  JAPANESE  ORNAMENT, 

59.  The  Chinese  are  a  nation  of  great  antiquity,  and  we 
can  discover  no  detail  of  art  training  that  they  have  ever 
given  to  or  received  from  any  other  civilization.  This  nation 
has  been  ever  satisfied  with  itself,  and  this  lack  of  progression 
and  consequent  isolation  have  given  it  an  originality  of 
character  devoid  of  any  detail  that  we  find  of  the  art  works 
of  other  nations,  unless  we  except  those  general  geometrical 
formations  that  instinct  seems  to  have  implanted  uniformly 
in  the  minds  of  every  known  race. 

GO.  Prlinltlveiiess  of  Chinese  Ornament. — Chinese 
ornament  does  not  seem  to  have  gone  beyond  the  very 
earliest  stages  of  design  that  we  find  among  the  most  prim- 
itive people.  They  are  even  behind  the  New  Zealander  in 


CO  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

their  theory  of  applied  art,  and  are  plodding  along-  in  the 
creation  of  fresh  designs  at  a  fixed  point  that  is  neither  pro- 
gression nor  retrogression.  Like  all  oriental  nations,  they 
possess  a  wonderful  faculty  of  color  harmony,  but  they  have 
never  expressed  an  appreciation  of  pure  form — a  condition 
that  must  necessarily  be  arrived  at  by  a  subtle  process  and 
result  from  highly  endowed  natural  instincts,  or  from  the 
development  of  primitive  ideas  through  successive  gen- 
erations of  artists,  each  improving  on  the  work  of  its 
predecessor. 

In  their  decorative  and  woven  patterns,  the  Chinese  pos- 
sess only  just  such  talent  as  might  be  expected  of  a  most 
primitive  people.  Their  most  successful  efforts  are  those  in 
which  a  geometrical  pattern  forms  the  basis  of  a  design,  and 
even  in  these  they  depart  from  patterns  formed  by  the  inter- 
section of  equal  lines,  and  seem  to  have  a  very  imperfect 
idea  of  the  distribution  of  space. 

Their  taste  for  color,  which  amounts  almost  to  an  instinct, 
enables  them  in  some  measure  to  balance  form,  but  in  designs 
deprived  of  color  they  seem  to  be  almost  helpless.  The 
Chinese  are  certainly  colorists,  and  are  able  to  balance  with 
equal  success  both  the  fullest  tones  of  color  and  the  most 
delicate  shades.  They  are  not  only  successful'  in  the  use  of 
the  primary  colors,  but  also  in  the  secondaries  and  tertiaries, 
and  they  are  particularly  deft  in  their  management  of  the 
lighter  shades  of  pure  color,  such  as  pink,  light  blue,  pale 
green,  etc. 

(>i.     Lack   of  Idealism   in    Chinese    Ornament. — In 

their  printed  paper  hangings,  the  treatment  of  both  figures 
and  landscape  and  of  ornament  is  so  conventional  that,  no 
matter  how  inartistic  we  may  consider  it,  we  feel  that  it  is 
within  the  bounds  of  decoration.  In  all  cases,  their  instinct 
thus  restrains  them  within  the  true  limit,  and  although  the 
arrangement  is  generally  unnatural  and  inartistic,  they  never 
by  shades  or  shadows  violate  consistency,  as  is  repeatedly 
clone  in  work  at  the  present  day. 

In  their  floral  patterns,  they  always  observed  natural  laws 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  61 

of  radiation  from  the  parent  stem,  and  tangential  curvature. 
It  could  not  very  well  be  otherwise  with  a  people  like  the 
Chinese,  whose  strongest  peculiarity  is  their  fidelity  in  copy- 
ing, and  hence  we  must  infer  that  they  are  close  observers 
of  nature.  It  is  the  taste  to  idealize  on  this  close  observa- 
tion that  is  wanting.  On  the  whole,  Chinese  ornament  is  a 
very  faithful  expression  of  the  nature  of  this  peculiar  people. 
Its  characteristic  feature  is  oddness.  We  cannot  call  it 
capricious,  for  caprice  is  a  playful  wandering  of  a  lively 
imagination ;  but  the  Chinese  imagination  is  disorderly,  and 
all  their  works  are  wanting  in  the  highest  grace  of  art, 
namely,  idealism. 

62.  Dearth  of  Chinese  Architecture. — The  extreme 
fancifulness  of  Chinese  ornamental  compositions,   and  the 
lack  of  order  or  method  in  them,  is  not  surprising  when  we 
take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  the  Chine.se  have  never 
developed  anything  worthy  of  the  name  of  architecture  in 
the  true  sense  of  the  word.     They  have  no  original  form  of 
construction  that  would  be  likely  to  give  rise  to  a  system  of 
ornament  in  which  even  the  most  insignificant  designs  have 
been  known  to  assume  character  and  even  grandeur,  as  is  so 
well  exemplified  in  Egyptian  style. 

63.  The  absence  of  a  national  architecture  renders  the 
character  and  genius  of  the  Chinese  easily  understood.     To 
this  people,   that  seems  to  occupy  itself  with  naught  but 
details  in    everything,    the   conception    of    a   monumental 
building  is  entirely  beyond  comprehension.     Certainly,  this 
circumstance   is  largely  responsible   for   the   condition    of 
the  Chinese  today  and  the  rudimentary  character  of  their 
designs. 

The  first  element  of  beauty  in  the  Chinese  school  of  art  is 
variety,  and  in  their  foliated  designs  we  find  leaves  following 
one  after  another  bearing  not  the  slightest  resemblance  to 
one  another.  One  panel  of  a  screen  painted  with  a  land- 
scape will  be  set  beside  another  ornamented  with  metallic 
arabesques.  The  use  of  straight  lines  and  right  angles  is 


62  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

either  studiously  avoided  or  so  disguised  that  they  will  be 
vague  or  misunderstood. 

64.  Chinese  Coloring. — That  the  Chinese  imagination 
is  of  a  disorderly  character  is  shown  in  some  of  their  curiously 
shaped  forms;  these  are  so  entirely  different  from  those  with 
which  we  are  more  familiar,  and  so  completely  destitute  of 
the  elements  that  cause  an  impression  of  grandeur,  that  the 
interest  in  their  designs  is  with  difficulty  maintained.  The 
Chinese  are  apparently  ignorant  of  the  simplest  laws  of 
perspective,  and  seem  in  no  way  to  comprehend  the  effect  of 
light  and  shade.  Notwithstanding  this  inferiority,  however, 
the  coloring  of  their  ornament  is  so  rich,  and  their  imagina- 
tion is  so  wild  and  irregular,  that  they  make  a  varied  and 
charming  use  of  their  ornament  in  particular  applications, 
such  as  ceramics,  incrustations,  and  woven  fabrics.  Their 
productions  are  models  of  color  harmony,  and  are  in  some 
respects  superior  to  the  works  of  other  nations.  The  very 
defects  in  their  designs  form  sources  of  some  of  the  good 
qualities  that  accompany  them,  and  the  capricious  activity  of 
their  minds  inclines  them  to  make  an  ornament  of  every- 
thing, whether  it  be  a  cloud,  wave,  shell,  rock,  or  form  from 
the  animal  world.  The  bright-colored  butterfly  flitting 
among  flowers  and  the  .laming  thunderbolt  bursting  from 
the  heavens  are  of  equa;  importance  to  the  Chinese  artist 
when  applied  to  a  surface  as  ornament. 

To  these  rich  and  varied  resources  may  be  added  a  limited 
number  of  time-honored  figures  that,  to  a  certain  extent, 
have  symbolical  significance.  We  are  all  familiar  with  the 
Chinese  dragons — those  monsters  with  frightful  heads, 
formidable  looking  teeth,  and  fearful  claws — certain  funny 
looking  dogs  with  claws,  sharp  teeth,  and  curling  mains 
somewhat  resembling  the  lion,  grotesque  birds,  and  the 
mandarin  duck,  all  of  which  are  conspicuous  in  Chinese 
decoration. 

f>5.  Adherence  to  Standard  Forms. — A  peculiarchar- 
acteristic  of  this  art  is  that,  though  it  appears  in  itself  so 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  63 

capricious,  its  execution  expresses  such  faithfulness  of  trans- 
mission in  the  representation  of  things  from  generation  to 
generation  that  the  lapse  of  hundreds  of  years  has  not  caused 
the  slightest  modification  of  one  of  these  standard  ornaments. 
This  may  be  due  to  the  effect  of  the  imitative  instinct  of 
this  isolated  nation  that,  so  advanced  in  some  points  and  so 
primitive  in  others,  is  always  consistent  in  itself.  It  is 
possible,  however,  that  this  fidelity  in  the  observance  of  the 
form  and  coloring  of  some  preceding  work  is  due  to  some 
mysterious  rules — some  sort  of  ritual  perpetuated  through 
various  ages.  Ancient  laws  and  customs  established  certain 
rules  governing  the  color  of  the  robes  and  vestments  of  the 
imperial  court,  according  to  different  dynasties;  once  it  was 
white,  afterwards  green,  and  the  -Tai  Tasig  dynasty,  now 
reigning  in  China,  dresses  in  yellow. 

Chinese  art  is  a  mixture  of  ideal  and  imitative  elements, 
the  latter  being  used  in  the  most  conventional  manner,  the 
coloring  of  which  is  also  conventional  and  not  in  the  least 
subject  to  any  imitation  of  nature. 

66.  Japanese  Art,  though  borrowed  from  the  Chi- 
nese, possesses  much  greater  individuality  and  is  better 
preserved  to  the  present  day.  The  Japanese  have  devel- 
oped the  study  of  nature,  especially  in  birds,  with  more 
truthfulness  and  power  of  observation  than  did  their  ances- 
tors or  rivals,  and  their  imitative  style  is  therefore  less 
conventional.  However,  even  though  their  delicate  pro- 
ductions have  added  fresh  charms  to  the  old  Chinese  cer- 
amics, they  are  not  equal  to  the  figures  of  the  work  of  the 
finest  periods. 

One  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  general  progress  of 
Japanese  art  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  a  great  profusion 
of  examples  of  design  of  all  sorts,  conceived  by  good  artists 
and  carved  in  wood,  are  so  distributed  as  to  be  constantly 
before  the  general  public.  Therein  lies  an  element  of  prog- 
ress, as  it  cultivates  a  taste  for  objects  of  art  among  the 
common  people  and  creates  a  demand.  When  all  objects 
and  utensils  of  service  and  utility  are  richly  carved  and 


64  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

decorated  with  ornamental  designs,  the  eye  is  bound  to 
become  educated  and  the  general  taste  of  the  people  more 
refined.  This  is  strongly  exemplified  in  the  Egyptian 
civilization. 


INDIAN  ORNAMENT. 

67.  Unxn'ogressiveness  of  Indian  Art. — Although  less 
isolated  than  China,  and  in  more  frequent  communication  with 
the  rest  of  the  world,  Indian  civilization  has  not  experienced 
such  changes  as  mark  the  history  of  many  other  nations. 
The  social  and  religious  organizations,  the  priests,  and  castes 
of  people,  the  sacred  books  and  poetry,  and  the  manners, 
customs,  and  superstitions  remain  today  much  as  they  were 
among  the  Hindus  hundreds  of  years  ago. 

Art  naturally  has  shared  in  this  standstill,  and  the  sub- 
stance of  Indian  decoration  is  still  limited  to  a  few  general 
features  that  for  many  centuries  have  undergone  no  funda- 
mental alteration.  The  most  striking  of  these  characteristics 
are  the  continuity  and  abundance  of  decoration.  The  sur- 
face decoration  is  usually  filled  up  entirely  with  a  profusion  of 
ornamental  forms  that,  if  not  exactly  alike,  are  very  similar. 
The  ground  color  is  always  warm  and  harmonious — occa- 
sionally light,  though  more  frequently  dark — which  serves 
to  unite  the  designs  and  add  greatly  to  the  general  effect. 

(58.  The  method  of  distribution  and  the  admirable  feel- 
ing for  color  procures  in  Indian  decoration  a  richness  and 
calm  that  gives  it  an  undefinable  sense  of  repose.  The 
tendency  of  the  style  toward  monotony  is  overcome  by  this 
powerful  unity  that  leaves  no  room  for  desire  or  need  of 
greater  variety.  The  designs  are  usually  based  on  some 
floral  type  and  are  treated  in  a  most  conventional  manner, 
and  though  the  imitation  bears  a  closer  resemblance  to 
nature  than  in  most  of  the  styles  we  have  studied,  it  is  by  no 
means  servile.  The  type  from  which  an  ornament  is  derived 
can  usually  be  recognized  without  trouble,  and,  although 
floral  ornament  is  occasionally  seen  under  the  pure  art  form 


g  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  65 

characteristic  of  the  Egyptian  style,  it  is  usually  treated 
with  a  pliancy  of  execution  and  picturesqueness  of  idea  that 
brings  it  to  a  closer  resemblance  to  the  modern  style. 

69.  In     the    execution,     however,     Indian    art    never 
attempts  the  rounding  of  a  form  (a  process  that  is  naturally 
opposed  to  the  idea  of  surface  decoration),  and  usually  con- 
fines itself  to  silhouette  drawings,  in  which  the  outline  is 
shown  off  by  a  dark  tint  on  light  grounds  or  by  a  lighter  tint 
on  dark  grounds. 

70.  Characteristics    of   Indian    Ornament. — Indian 
ornament  possesses  the  valuable  characteristic  of  being  dis- 
tinctively original.     It  has  been  allowed  to  grow  up  and 
develop  itself  without  any  foreign  influence  or 
conflicting  ideas  of  religion.     In  the  application 

of  ornament  to  the  various  portions  of  an  object, 
the  greatest  judgment  is,  in  this  style,  always 
shown.  In  the  first  place,  the  ornament  is 
always  in  perfect  scale  with  the  position  that  it 
occupies.  On  the  long  narrow  necks  of  the 
hookas  are  the  small  pendant  flowers,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  50,  while  the  swelling  form  toward  the 
base  is  occupied  with  larger  patterns. 

71.  In  the  equal  distribution  of  surface  orna- 
ment over  the  grounds,    this  nation  exhibits  a 
remarkable   perfection   of   drawing.      An   exact 
balance  is  obtained  between  the  various  colors 
used,  and  this  balance  is  carried  to  such  a  nicety 
that  it  is   practically   impossible   to   reproduce 
any  of  their  woven  or  embroidered  goods  with 

any  degree  of  accuracy.  In  all  their  woven  fabrics,  the 
colors  are  so  fused  together  that  the  entire  piece  of  goods 
at  a  little  distance  presents  no  individual  coloring,  but  a 
neutralized  bloom. 

72.  The  following  general  rules  observed  in  the  designs 
of  their  woven  fabrics  are  of  importance: 


06  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

J.  When  gold  ornaments  are  used  on  a  colored  ground, 
or  where  gold  is  used  in  large  masses,  there  the  ground  is 
darkest.  Where  gold  is  used  more  thinly,  the  ground  is 
lighter  and  moi'e  delicate. 

2.  When  gold  ornament  is  used  alone  on  a  colored  ground, 
the  color  of  the  ground  is  carried  into  it  by  ornaments  or 
hatchings  worked  on  the  ground  colors  in  the  gold  itself. 

3.  When  ornaments  in  one  color  are  on  a  ground  of  con- 
trasting color,  the  ornament  is  separated  from  the  ground  by 
an  edging  of  a  lighter  color  to  prevent  all  harshness  of  contrast. 

4.  When,  on  the  contrary,  ornaments  in  a  color  are  on  a 
gold  ground,   the  ornaments  are   separated  from   the  gold 
ground  by  an  edging  of  darker  color  to  prevent  the  gold 
from  overpowering  the  ornament. 

5.  In  other  cases  where  varieties  of  color  are  used  on  a 
colored  ground,  a  general  outline  of  gold,  of  silver,  or  of 
white  or  yellow  silk  separates  the  ornament  from  the  ground, 
giving  a  general  tone  throughout. 

73.  In  Fig.  51  is  shown  a  diaper  pattern  taken  from  an 
Indian  textile,  and  exhibits  the  regularity  of  repeated  form 


FIG.  51. 


that  thoroughly  fills  up  the  surface,  as  heretofore  described. 
There  is  a  slight  tendency  toward  a  geometrical  formation 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


67 


observable  in  this  pattern,  where  the  wavy  line  becomes 
tangent  to  its  neighbor.  This  geometrical  pattern  is 
not  as  rigidly  carried  out, 
however,  as  in  Fig.  52, 
where  the  construction  lines 
governing  the  main  details 
consist  merely  of  semi- 
circles connected  by  short 
straight  lines,  thereby  forming 
knees,  as  indicated  at  a.  The 
style  of  ornament  enclosed  in 
the  geometrical  figures  thus 
formed  is  typical  of  Indian 
design,  and  shows  a  number 
of  forms  tangent  to  a  general 
stem,  all  of  which  may  have 
had  their  origin  in  brush 
strokes  of  painted  work,  or 
possibly  in  the  shape  of  the 
palm  leaf,  which  they  slightly 
resemble.  FlG-  52_ 

74.     In  Fig.   53  is  shown  a  typical  example  of   Indian 
ornament  taken  from  a  woolen  fabric,  many  of  the  details  of 


FIG.  53. 
which  will  be  found  similar  to  the  strokes  referred  to  in 


<J8 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


Fig.  52.  These  forms,  though  more  or  less  foliated,  do  not 
bear  a  very  strong  resemblance  to  the  natural  type,  but  in 
Fig.  54  we  have  an  example  of  silverware  where  the  chased 
design  is  a  conventionalized  form  of  flower,  but  in  more 
direct  imitation  of  nature  than  exhibited  in  the  other 
examples. 

75.  These  few  examples  illustrate  by  comparison  the 
different  handling  of  ornament  by  the  Indian  designers  to 
suit  it  to  various  purposes.  The  patterns  shown  in  Figs.  51 
and  52  are  seen  more  usually  in  light  fabrics,  while  that  in 
Fig.  53  is  woven  in  heavier  woolen  goods,  and  that  in  Fig.  54 
is  executed  in  metal. 

In  objects  of  low-tone  combinations  of  color,  a  black  gen- 
eral outline  is  used  to  separate  the  ornament  from  the  ground. 
The  object  always  appears  to  be,  in  the  woven  fabric,  that 


each  ornament  should  be  softly  and  not  harshly  defined,  that 
colored  objects  viewed  at  a  distance  should  present  a  neu- 
tralized bloom,  that  nearer  approach  should  exhibit  the 
beautiful  details,  and  that  a  close  inspection  should  divulge 
the  means  whereby  these  effects  are  produced.  In  this,  the 
Indian  carries  out  the  same  principle  of  surface  decoration 
that  we  find  in  the  architecture  of  the  Arabs  and  Moors.  The 
ornament  in  the  spandrel  of  a  Moorish  arch  and  in  an  Indian 
shawl  are  constructed  on  precisely  the  same  principles. 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  69 

76.  Indian  decoration,  like  the  Chinese,  is  un progressive 
and  introduces  no  new  forms  in  its  designs,  but  repeats 
traditionally  generation  after  generation  the  same  forms  for 
the  same  purposes. 


ARABIAN  OHNAMENT. 

77.  Important  as  was  the  influence  of  Byzantine  art  in 
Europe  from  the  sixth  to  the  eleventh  century,  there  was  no 
people  that  it  affected  more  than  the  great  and  spreading 
Arab  race  that  propagated  the  creed  of  Mohammed,  and,  after 
conquering  the  finest  countries  in  Asia  and  Africa,  finally 
obtained  a  footing  even  in  Europe.     In  the  earlier  buildings 
executed  by  them  in  Egypt,  Palestine,  and  Spain,  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Byzantine  style  is  very  strongly  marked,  and  the 
tradition  of  the  Byzantine  school  affected  all  the  adjacent 
countries  to  a  greater  or  less  degree. 

Although  the  Arabs  must  have  possessed  an  original  art, 
only  a  few  traces  of  it  remain,  and  these  are  in  legends 
wherein  grand  buildings  are  spoken  of  that  date  back  to 
remote  antiquity. 

It  is  known  that  the  wandering  and  stationary  tribes  dis- 
tinguished each  other  by  the  name  of  "Felt  people"  and 
"  Clay  people, "  and  this  would  lead  one  to  the  impression 
that  the  latter  title  implied  a  knowledge  of  ceramics;  but  the 
character  of  the  decoration  of  the  pottery  of  these  early 
tribes  is  at  present  unknown,  as  is  also  that  of  their  arms, 
fabrics,  and  fixed  dwellings. 

78.  Development  of  Arabian  Ornament. — On  their 
contact  with  the  Greeks,    East  Indians,  and  Persians,  the 
Arabian  people  produced  a  style  of  ornament  that  formed  an 
important  part  in  the  compromise  now  called  by  the  name 
Byzantine.     Subsequently,  when  Byzantine  art  had  reached 
its  zenith,  Arabian  art,  under  the  influence  of  Islam,  took  the 
form  under  which  we  now  know  it,  and  may  have  shown  in 
some  applications  a  certain  Byzantine  influence  exercised  on 
the  Arab  practice.     It  is  unreasonable,  however,  to  consider 


70  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

Byzantine  art,  as  is  sometimes  done,  as  being  originally  a 
formation  of  the  Arab  style,  as  the  latter  has  too  much  char- 
acter and  unity  not  to  be  in  itself  an  original  conception. 
There  appears  to  have  been  a  mutual  influence  exercised 
between  the  Byzantine  and  Arabian  during  the  earliest  peri- 
ods, as  inevitably  happens  in  a  contest  for  supremacy  between 
two  neighboring  styles;  but  if  the  Arab  received  anything 
from  the  perfected  Byzantine,  it  may  be  said  that  they  were 
only  partly  taking  back  their  own  from  an  art  that  had  drawn 
so  largely  from  oriental  sources,  not  only  during  its  forma- 
tion but  also  up  to  the  period  of  its  greatest  development. 

71).  Influence  of  Mohammedanism. — When  the 
Mohammedan  religion  spread  with  such  astounding  rapidity 
over  the  East,  the  increasing  demands  of  civilization  natu- 
rally led  to  the  creation  of  a  new  style  of  art,  and  while  it  is 
certain  that  the  early  Mohammedan  structures  were  either 
an  adaptation  of  old  Roman  or  Byzantine  buildings,  or  else 
buildings  constructed  from  the  ruins  and  materials  of  the 
ancient  monuments,  it  is  equally  certain  that  the  new  ideas 
and  expression  of  feelings  must  at  a  very  early  period  have 
given  rise  to  a  characteristic  form  of  art.  In  buildings  con- 
structed largely  of  old  materials,  they  endeavored  to  imitate 
the  details  borrowed  from  old  buildings,  and  the  same  result 
followed  that  had  already  taken  place  in  the  transition  of  the 
Roman  style  to  the  Byzantine.  The  imitations  were  crude 
and  imperfect,  but  this  imperfection  created  a  new  order  of 
ideas;  and  instead  of  returning  to  the  original  model,  they 
gradually  threw  off  the  restrictions,  and  early  in  their  history 
formed  and  perfected  a  style  of  art  peculiarly  their  own. 

8O.  With  the  study  of  Arabian  ornament,  we  meet  the 
first  restrictions  in  the  application  of  certain  forms  in  deco- 
ration. The  Mohammedan  religion  forbids  the  use  of  any 
animal  or  vegetable  forms  as  an  element  of  design.  The 
Koran,  which  occupies  the  same  position  in  the  Moham- 
medan belief  that  the  Bible  does  in  the  Christian,  distinctly 
states  that  the  follower  of  Mohammed  "Shall  make  no 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


71 


images. "  We  therefore  find  in  the  Arabian  style,  as  a  substi- 
tute for  the  foliated  design  we  are  now  so  familiar  with,  a  sys- 
tem of  constructive  ornament,  the  complicated  framing  of 
which  was  fascinating  to  the  geometrical  mind  of  the  Arab. 


FIG.  55. 


81.  This  is  shown  clearly  in  Fig.  55,  which  is  the  out- 
side of  a  staircase  in  Egypt,  the  panels  of  which  are  enriched 
by  very  beautiful  geometrical  devices — complicated  in  their 
construction  but  really  simple  in  their  formation  when  their 


72  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

governing  lines  are  traced  out.  Take,  for  instance,  the  large 
triangular  panel,  and  it  will  be  found  that  all  the  figures 
therein  are  formed  by  the  intersection  and  crossing  of  a 
number  of  zigzag  lines,  several  of  which  are  exactly  the 
same  in  pattern  but  arranged  at  different  angles. 

This  is  characteristic  of  all  Arabian  and  Moorish  designs, 
as  we  shall  see  hereafter.  The  continuity  of  the  ornament 
entirely  covers  the  surface  in  Arabian  as  in  Indian  art,  and 
nothing  can  be  removed  from  the  design  without  occasioning 
a  feeling  of  loss. 

The  means  employed,  however,  are  different,  and,  while 
the  mere  repetition  of  objects  frequently  suffices  in  Indian 
decoration,  the  Arabian  ornament,  on  the  contrary,  is  built 
up  and  bound  together  in  all  its  parts.  Everything  is  con- 
nected, and,  from  the  circumference  to  the  center  of  the 
interfacings  in  a  piece  of  rose  work,  there  is  a  continuous 
line  that  cannot  be  broken  without  destroying  the  design. 
This  imaginative  construction  is  sometimes  double,  that  is, 
formed  by  two  complete  systems  that  follow  each  other  to 
an  end  without  confusion,  but  meet  and  overlap  to  produce 
incidental  figures,  intersections,  and  alterations. 

82.  Arabian  Decoration.  —  Notwithstanding  this 
learned  complication,  Arabian  decoration  is  clear  and  dis- 
tinct, thanks  to  the  general  purity  and  fineness  of  the  lines 
and  the  exclusion  of  all  superfluity.  This  is  also  due  to  the 
principle  observed  in  the  construction  of  the  "roses," 
wherein  the  wider  spans  are  reserved  for  the  extremities  of 
the  circumference,  leaving  to  the  radiating  center,  from 

which  they  diverge,  the  fine  work 
that  throws  out  boldly,  thus  fix- 
ing the  eye  on  the  key  of  the 
whole  composition  as  the  central 
point  of  a  circle. 


83.      In   Fig.    56    is   shown 
another  example  of  this  style  of 
FIG.  se.         <  ornament,  taken  from  a  mosaic 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  73 

pavement  in  a  mosque  at  Cairo,  in  Egypt.  Here  the  geo- 
metrical simplicity  of  the  pattern  can  be  easily  traced,  as 
the  design  consists  simply  of  two  horizontally  arranged 
zigzag  lines,  crossed  at  regular  intervals  by  sets  of  diago- 
nally arranged  zigzag  lines,  the  patterns  of  which  are  all 
identical. 

84.  In  Fig.  57  we  have  an  ornament  generated  on  a  dif- 
ferent system  but  on  a  similar  geometrical  idea.  This  orna- 
ment, too,  is  suggestive  of  the  fret  pattern,  though  entirely 
different  from  any  frets  we  have  hitherto  observed.  How- 
ever, the  shape  of  the  enclosed  figure  abcdef,  it  will  be 


FIG.  57. 

observed,  is  identically  the  same  as  the  figure  gh  ij kl,  and 
the  repetition  and  alternate  arrangement  of  these  two  pecu- 
liar outlines  give  v.s  the  key  to  the  whole  system  of  orna- 
ment shown  in  the  figure. 

This  result  is  obtained  by  an  arrangement  of  the  simplest 
forms  imaginable,  but  the  geometrical  and  intellectual  study 
required  to  perfect  these  forms  to  bring  about  the  result  is 
something  tremendous,  and  the  student  will  readily  see  that 
it  really  requires  more  brain  wrork  to  produce  a  simple  look- 
ing design  like  Fig.  57,  than  the  complicated  arrangement 
of  straight  lines  shown  in  Fig.  56. 

85.  Another  pattern  is  shown  in  Fig.  58,  and  consists  of 
a  number  of  scrolls  of  a  more  or  less  geometrical  character, 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


FIG.  58. 


and,  though  simple  in  itself,  it  is  fascinatingly  complicated  in 
its  conception.  The  design  is  executed  in  two  colors,  and  a 
little  study  will  show  that  the  outlines  of  the  two  colors  are 
identical.  The  light  portions  of  the  design  in  the  upper  half 

of  the  figure  are  a  duplication 
of  the  dark  portions  of  the 
design  in  the  lower  half  of  the 
figure,  and  vice  versa,  every 
detail  on  one  half  being  exactly 
reproducible  in  the  opposite 
color  on  the  other  half,  and,  if 
the  figure  were  sawed  out  on 
the  line  dividing  the  two  colors, 
it  would  produce  two  outlines 
exactly  the  same  in  every  respect.  We  called  attention  to 
this  fact  in  connection  with  the  Greek  frets,  but  no  Greek 
ornament  ever  carried  this  wonderful  mathematical  detail 
to  such  a  nicety. 

86.  Ai-abiau  Coloring. — In  Fig.  59  we  have  a  ceiling 
taken  from  a  mosque  at  Cairo.  The  repetition  of  similar 
forms  is  clearly  marked  here,  though  the  geometrical  ele- 
ment is  largely  lost  owing  to 
the  surface  covered  by  the 
flat  decoration.  The  colors 
here  used  were  a  light  blue 
for  the  groundwork,  over 
which  was  laid  the  general 
design  in  bright  gold,  and 
that  overlaid  with  a  pale  yel- 
low, almost  approaching  a 
cream  tint.  Light  blue  and 
pale  yellow  are  very  prominent  tints  in  Arabian  ornament; 
red  is  used  but  sparingly,  and  then  of  a  most  intense  shade ; 
while  green  is  introduced  in  small  arabesque  figures,  scat- 
tered through  with  others  of  gold  and  occasionally  of  blue. 
The  ground  colors  in  nearly  all  instances  are  blue,  creamy 
yellow,  and  occasionally  red. 


FIG.  59. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


75 


87.  Fig.  60  is  from  an  illuminated  copy  of  the  Koran, 
and  illustrates  the  influence  of  Byzantine  art  on  that  of 
Arabia.  The  general  construction  lines  of  the  ornament  are 
Byzantine  in  character,  while  the  rilling  in  is  typically  Ara- 
bian. The  small  irregular  spaces  in  the  border  of  the  design 


FIG.  GO. 

at  a  are  green,  the  square  enclosed  spaces  at  b  are  a  brilliant 
red,  and  the  groundwork  that  shows  through  at  c  is  a  deli- 
cate shade  of  blue.  The  ornaments  worked  on  these  grounds 
and  in  these  spaces  are  either  a  bright  gold  or  white,  and  the 
filling  in  of  the  general  outline  is  a  creamy  shade  of  yellow. 

88.  In  the  primitive  Arabian  style,  unmixed  with  the 
Persian,  the  flower,  properly  so  called,  is  never  to  be  found, 
but  in  its  place  appear  other  forms  resembling  it  and  are 
apparently  inspired  directly  by  nature.  This  sort  of  sub- 
ject, half  way  between  imaginary  conception  and  the  repre- 
sentation of  natural  flowers,  does  not  appear  simply  as  a 
termination  of  scrolls,  as  among  the  Greeks,  but  forms  an 
integral  part  of  the  decoration  and  does  not  break  the  lineal 
network. 


76  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

TURKISH  ORNAMENT. 

89.  Characteristics    of    Turkish    Ornament.  —  The 

architecture  of  the  Turks,  as  seen  at  Constantinople,  is 
patterned  after  the  early  Byzantine  style,  though  their  sys- 
tem of  ornamentation  is  a  modification  of  the  Arabian  style. 
In  fact,  it  may  be  considered  as  an  application  of  Arabian 
ornament,  without  any  understanding  of  the  meaning,  deri- 
vation, or  type  of  that  ornament. 

When  the  art  of  one  people  is  borrowed  by  another  of  the 
same  religion  but  of  different  character,  temperament,  and 
customs,  the  resulting  designs  are  certain  to  show  the  defi- 
ciency of  intellect  or  refinement  that  the  borrowing  people 
possessed  in  contrast  to  the  others;  and  this  is  the  case  with 
the  Turks  when  compared  with  the  Arabs.  There  is  the 
same  difference  in  the  refinement,  elegance,  and  judgment 
of  the  Turkish  ornament  and  Arabian  ornament  as  there  is 
between  these  two  peoples.  The  Turks  themselves  can 
hardly  be  considered  an  artistic  nation.  They  have  built 
buildings  and  executed  designs  in  their  cities,  but  have 
employed  foreign  artists  to  do  the  work.  All  their  public 
buildings,  therefore,  present  a  mixed  style.  It  is  not  at  all 
imusual  to  find  in  a  Turkish  building  floral  ornaments  of 
Arabian  and  Persian  origin  side  by  side  with  details  from 
Rome,  the  Turks  having  exhibited  a  tendency  to  abandon 
the  traditional  style  of  their  forefathers. 

The  Turks  are  the  first  of  the  Mohammedan  nations  to 
adopt  European  fashions  in  architecture,  and  their  modern 
buildings  and  palaces  are  the  work  of  European  architects 
and  artists,  and  are  designed  in  the  most  approved  European 
style. 

90.  The  Turkish  embroideries  give  about  the  only  style 
of  ornament  that  we  can  consider  strictly  national,  as  work 
of  this  character  must  necessarily  exhibit  the  characteristics 
of  the  race,  and,  judging  from  this,  it  will  be  readily  seen 
that  their  art  instinct  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  India.      Indian 
embroidery  is  perfect  in  the  distribution  of  its  forms  and  all 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  77 

its  principles  of  ornamentation.  With  Turkish  ornamenta- 
tion, the  only  examples  we  have  that  approach  any  degree 
of  perfection  are  in  the  carpets,  but  these  are  executed 
mostly  in  Asia  Minor,  and  are  probably  not  designed  by 
Turks.  The  designs  of  most  of  them  appear  more  Arabian, 
and  differ  from  the  Persian  carpets  in  being  more  conven- 
tional in  their  foliage  treatment. 

91.  The  general  principles  of  the  distribution  of  form 
are  the  same  in  Turkish  and  Arabian  ornament,  but  there  is 
a  difference  in  the  treatment.     In  both  the  Arabian  and 
Moresque  styles,  the  surface  of  an  ornament  is  only  slightly 
rounded  and  the  enrichment  is  secured  by  sinking  in  the 
lines,  or,  where  the  surface  was  left  smooth,  additional  pat- 
tern upon  pattern  was  obtained  by  painting.     Turkish  orna- 
ment, on  the  contrary,  presents  a  curved  surface,  and  the 
effect  is  not  as  broad  as  that  produced  by  the  sunken-feather 
treatment  of  the  Arabian  and  Moresque.     Another  peculiar- 
ity that  readily  distinguishes  Turkish  ornament  from  Ara- 
bian is  its  abuse  of  the  reentering  curve,  thus  causing  all 
its  detail  to  have  a  feeling  of  instability  and  unrest.     This 
is  also,  to  a   certain  extent,  characteristic   of  the    Persian 
style.       In   the   Moorish    style,  however,  it    appears    only 
exceptionally. 

92.  It  is  a  very  difficult  matter,  in  fact,  almost  impos- 
sible, to  clearly  explain  the  differences  in  styles  of  ornament 
that  have  so  strong  a  family  resemblance  as.  the  Persian, 
Arabian,  and  Turkish,  but,   after  practice,  the  eye  detects 
them  as  readily  as  it  does  the  difference  between  Roman 
and  Greek.     The  general  principles  remaining  the  same, 
there  will  be  found  a  peculiarity  in  the  proportions  of  the 
masses — more  or  less  grace  in  the  flowing  of  the  curves,  a 
fondness  for  particular  directions  in  the  leading  lines,  and  a 
peculiar  interweaving  of  forms,    the  general  form  of  the 
conventional  foliage  usually  remaining  the  same.     The  rela- 
tive degree  of  fancy,  delicacy,  or  coarseness  with  which  these 
are  drawn  will  at  once  distinguish  them  as  works  of  the 


78  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

refined   and   spirited    Persian,   the   not   alone   refined,    but 
reflective,  Arabian,  or  the  unimaginative  Turk. 

93.  The  most  prominent  colors  in  Turkish  ornament  are 
green  and  black ;  in  fact,  these  form  a  feature  of  the  orna- 
ment. In  modern  Turkish  ornament,  green  is  much  more 
prominent  than  in  ancient  examples,  where  blue  was  the 
important  color. 


PERSIAN"  ORNAMENT. 

94.  Characteristics    of    Persian    Ornament. — The 

time  at  which  we  are  most  familiar  with  Persian  art  is  at  the 
period  of  its  greatest  splendor.  The  outlines  of  the  orna- 
ment are  generally  taken  from  the  conceptions  of  Arabian 
architecture,  but  modified  by  Indian  tradition  and  the 
peculiar  genius  of  the  Persian  race.  The  style  of  Persian 
ornament  is  less  compressed  and  austere  than  the  Ara- 
bian, and  possesses  more  freedom  and  elegance,  while  its 
sources  of  double  derivation  give  it  a  greater  element  of 
variety. 

The  floral  motive  is  employed  in  both  its  aspects.  In 
some  examples  it  is  scattered  through  the  decoration  with 
apparent  freedom,  and,  in  others,  inserted  in  the  linked  net- 
work and  usually  placed  at  the  intersection  of  lines ;  but  even 
in  the  latter  case,  it  is  treated  in  a  manner  that  is  medium 
between  the  Arab  conventionality  and  the  Indian  naturalism. 
A  consideration  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Persians  will 
help  us  to  understand  this  more  fully. 

95.  Persian    Compared    With    Ai'abian    Art.  —  The 

Arabs  belonged  to  the  Mohammedan  sect  of  Omar,  while  the 
Persians  had  split  from  this  faith,  and  belonged  to  the  sect 
of  Ali,  and  were  great  drinkers  of  wine.  They  therefore 
attributed  to  flowers  a  symbolical  language,  and  did  not 
exclude  the  representation  of  flowers  in  their  decoration, 
which  is  also  animated  by  real  and  fantastic  animals,  and 
sometimes,  though  rarely,  with  the  human  figure.  The 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  79 

resources  resulting  from  this  mixed  style  are  enhanced  by 
the  manual  skill  and  remarkable  fertility  possessed  by  the 
Persians.  Bookbinders,  potters,  embroiderers,  and  minia- 
ture painters  emulate  one  another  in  taste  and  skill.  Per- 
sian carpets  are  still  considered  the  finest  in  the  world, 
and  the  dishes,  vases,  and  enamel  bricks  from  that  country 
are  models  of  taste,  and  European  art  seeks  them  out  and 
manufacturers  endeavor  to  equal  them  by  imitation. 

96.  Persian  Compared.  With  Indian  Art. — The  Indian 
and  Persian  styles  resemble  each  other  in  their  polychro- 
matic  decoration.     The  rule  is  usually  a  silhouette,   with 
geometrical  outlines  relieved  by  conventional  coloring  on  a 
dominating  generating  ground. 

97.  The   Mohammedan    architecture   of    Persia    never 
seems  to  have  attained  the  perfection  of  the  Arabian  build- 
ings in  Cairo.     Although  presenting  considerable  grandeur 
in  the  main  features,  the  general  outlines  are  less  pure,  and 
there  is  a  want  of  elegance  in  all  their  structural  details 
compared  with  the  edifices  of  Cairo.     It  is  not  strange, 
therefore,  that  we  find  their  system  of  construction  much 
inferior   to   that   of  the  Arabians  and  Moors.      The   Per- 
sians, unlike   the   Arabs    and   Moors,  were   free   to   intro- 
duce   animal    life,    and    thus   mixing    up    subjects    drawn 
from   real   life    with   the   inanimate   forms    of  decoration, 
they  were  led   away  from   the   tendency  to  a  pure   style 
of  ornament. 

98.  The   great  attention   given  to  the   illumination  of 
manuscripts  in  Persia,  which  were  widely  spread   through 
all  Mohammedan  countries,  would  naturally  tend  to  spread 
the  influence  of  this  mixed  style,   and   the  decorations  of 
houses  at  Cairo  and  Damascus,  and  the  mosques  and  foun- 
tains of  even  Constantinople,  are  tainted  with  it  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent.     Groups  of  natural  flowers  are  constantly 
found  growing  from  vases  and  enclosed  in  panels  of  con- 
ventional Arabian  ornament. 


80 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


MOORISH    ORNAMENT. 

99.  Derivation  of  Moorish  Art. — The  Moorish  style, 
with  but  a.  few  distinguishing  characteristics,  is  the  direct 
offspring  of  the  Arabian.  The  methods  of  construction,  the 


FIG.  6L 


forms  of  ornament,  and  the  frequent  use  of  inscriptions  are 
common  to  both  styles.  However,  in  Moorish  decoration,  a 
characteristic  feature  is  the  use  of  a  third  color,  or  ground 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  81 

surface,  worked  over  or  between  two  others  that  serve  as  a 
framework.  This  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  61,  which  is  a  detail 
from  the  Alcazar,  at  Seville.  Here  the  geometrical  con- 
struction of  the  Arabian  style  is  everywhere  evident,  while 
in  the  soffit  of  the  arch  at  a  is  seen  the  typical  relief  Moorish 
ornament  painted  in  three  colors,  as  hereafter  explained. 

100.  The  Alhambra. — In  discussing  the  ornament  of 
the  Moors,  we  will  confine  our  illustrations  largely  to  details 
taken  from  the  Alhambra,  in  Spain,  because  this  is  one  of 
their  chief  works  of  art,  and  the  one  in  which  their  system 
of  decoration  reached  its  culminating  point.      In  fact,  the 
Alhambra  occupies  the  same  position  in  Moorish  art  as  does 
the  Parthenon  in  the  Greek,  or  Hagia  Sophia  in  the  Byzantine 
style.     Every  principle  of  art  that  we  find  in  the  ornament 
of  any  other  people,  we  find  obeyed  by  the  Moors  in  this 
erection  of  the  Alhambra.     Here  are  the  eloquence  of  Egyp- 
tian art,  the  grace  and  refinement  of  the  Greek,  and  the 
geometrical  complexity  and  variety  of  the  Byzantines  and 
Arabs. 

101.  Characteristics  of  Moorish  Ornament. — The 

ornament  lacked  the  charm  of  symbolism,  however,  that  is 
so  characteristic  of  Egyptian  ornament,  for  this  was  forbid- 
den by  the  religion  of  the  Moors;  but  its  place  is  more  than 
supplied  by  the  Arabic  inscriptions,  which  address  them- 
selves directly  to  the  eye  by  their  personal  beauty,  and  not 
only  excite  the  intellect  by  the  difficulties  of  deciphering 
their  complex  and  curious  involutions,  but  also  delight  the 
imagination  when  read  by  the  beauty  of  the  sentiments  they 
express  and  the  music  of  their  composition.  Long  fantastic 
letters,  interwoven  with  graceful  but  intricate  geometrical 
patterns,  as  shown  at  a  in  Fig.  62,  lead  the  eye  to  decipher 
the  words,  and  we  find,  as  a  part  of  the  construction  of  their 
very  buildings,  sentiments  that  are  ever  present  and  asso- 
ciated with  all  their  daily  doings,  and  ever  simple  but 
truthful  phrases  elaborately  twisted  or  intricately  woven, 
such  as,  "  There  is  no  conqueror  but  God." 


82  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

1O2.  The  builders  of  this  wonderful  structure  were 
fully  aware  of  the  greatness  of  their  work.  It  was  inserted 
in  the  inscriptions  on  the  walls  that  this  building  surpassed 


FIG.  62. 


all  other  buildings.  They  also  state  in  the  glittering  eccen- 
tricities of  the  design  that,  "  He  who  stops  to  study 
with  attention  will  reap  the  benefit  of  a  commentary  on 
decoration." 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


83 


1O3.  Decorated  Construction  and  Constructed 
Decoration. — Let  iis  now  follow  the  injunction  of  this 
inscription  and  learn  some  of  the  general  principles  that 


FIG.  63. 


appear  to  have  guided  the  Moors  in  their  decoration.  In 
the  first  place,  they  always  regarded  the  first  principle  of 
architecture — to  decorate  construction  and  never  to  construct 
decoration. 


84  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

In  Moorish  art,  the  decoration  arises  most  naturally  from 
the  construction,  and  the  constructive  idea  is  carried  out  in 
every  detail  of  the  ornamentation  of  the  surface,  as  shown  in 
Fig'.  63,  which  is  a  window  opening,  around  which,  it  will  be 
observed,  the  ornament  is  arranged  to  set  forth  and  empha- 
size the  opening  as  a  structural  detail.  We  have  already 
said  that  true  beauty  results  from  a  repose  of  mind,  felt 
when  the  eye,  the  intellect,  and  the  affections  are  satisfied 
and  free  from  all  sense  of  want.  When  a  building  is  con- 
structed falsely,  and  appears  to  derive  or  give  support  with- 
out doing  either  one  or  the  other,  it  fails  to  afford  this 
repose,  and  therefore  can  never  pretend  to  true  beauty, 
however  harmonious  it  may  be  in  itself. 

The  Moors  and  the  Mohammedan  races  generally  have 
ever  regarded  this  rule,  and  we  never  find  a  useless  or 
superfluous  ornament,  or  one  that  does  not  arise  quietly  and 
naturally  from  the  decorated  surface.  The  lines  grow  out 
of  each  other  in  gradual  undulations;  there  are  no  excres- 
cences; nothing  could  be  removed  and  leave  the  design  as 
good,  or  make  it  any  better. 

1O4.  The  surface  in  Fig.  64  is  entirely  filled  with  orna- 
mentation, but  no  detail  of  it  can  in  any  way  be  altered  and 
so  improve  the  design.  In  a  general  sense,  if  its  construc- 
tion is  properly  attended  to,  there  can  be  no  excrescences. 
The  general  forms  were  first  cared  for ;  these  were  subdi- 
vided by  general  lines,  the  interstices  of  which  were  then 
filled  with  ornament  that  was  again  subdivided  and  enriched 
for  closer  inspection.  (This  will  also  be  observed  by  careful 
study  of  Fig.  60.)  They  carried  out  this  principle  with  the 
greatest  refinement,  and  the  harmony  and  beauty  of  all  their 
ornamentation  derived  their  chief  success  from  this  observ- 
ance ;  their  main  divisions  contrasted  and  balanced  perfectly. 
The  detail  never  interferes  with  the  general  form,  and,  when 
seen  at  a  distance,  the  main  lines  strike  the  eye  and  the  fine 
detail  disappears;  nearer  approached,  more  detail  comes  into 
the  composition,  and,  on  close  inspection,  all  detail  of  the 
surface  appears  as  a  grand  powdering  of  ornament.  The 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


85 


effect  of  this  treatment  is  well  illustrated  in  Fig.  65,  where 
the  general  arched  construction  is  the  main  consideration. 
'The  subdivision  of  the  surface  into  general  panels  by  means 
of  ornamental  bands  is  of  next  importance,  and  the  surface 


f£,  v  I  * y  ^5SH¥^*lt^*-F**  1^4**  1 1*  ^ 


FIG.  64. 

decoration  of  these  panels  then  receives  the  final  considera- 
tion. However,  though  these  may  be  left  to  the  last,  they 
receive  the  closest  attention  and  a  care  in  their  treatment  not 
even  second  to  that  in  the  construction  of  the  arch  itself. 

1O5.     The    Primary    Elements. — Harmony   of    form 
appears  to  exist  in  the  proper  balancing  and  contrast  of  the 


86 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


straight,  inclined,  and  curved  elements;  as  in  color  there  can 
be  no  perfect  composition  in  which  either  of  the  three 
primary  colors  is  wanting-,  so  in  form,  whether  structural  or 
decorative,  there  can  be  no  perfect  composition  in  which 


either  of  the  three  primary  elements  is  wanting,  and  the 
variety  of  harmony  in  a  design  depends  on  the  predominance 
or  subordination  of  these  three  forms. 

1O6.     In  surface  decoration,  an  arrangement  consisting 
of  straight  lines  crossed  by  other  straight  lines,  as  in  Fig.  66, 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


87 


is  monotonous  and  affords  no  feeling  of  satisfaction.  This  is 
because  only  one  of  the  primary  elements  is  present — the 
straight  line ;  but,  if  we  introduce  lines  that  tend  to  carry  the 
eye  toward  the  angles,  as  in  Fig.  67,  the  pleasure  is  increased 
and  the  figure  has  more  repose.  This  is  due  to  the  presence 


\/ 


^   :vw^;>v<: 


FIG.  68. 


FIG.  69. 


of  another  primary  element — the  inclined  line.  Now,  add 
the  third  element — the  curved  line — as  shown  in  Fig.  08,  and 
the  figure  expresses  complete  harmony.  In  this  case,  the 
straight  line  or  square  is  the  leading  form  and  the  others  are 
subordinate,  but  the  same  result  can  be  obtained  by  making 
the  inclined  line  the  leading  form,  as  shown  in  Fig.  60. 

1O7.  It  is  the  neglect  of  this  simple  rule  that  causes  so 
many  failures  in  paper  hangings  and  carpets,  and  more  espe- 
cially in  articles  of  dress.  The  lines  of  papers  generally 
appear  to  run  up  through  the  ceiling  most  disagreeably  in 
one  direction  only,  carrying  the  eye  right  through  the  walls 
of  the  apartment. 

The  study  of  any  design  or  pattern  that  has  been  regarded 
with  any  degree  of  satisfaction  in  ancient  times,  will  show, 
as  component  parts  of  its  structure,  the  straight  line,  the 
curved  line,  and  the  inclined  line  characteristic  of  the  surface 
decoration  of  the  Moors. 


1O8.     Consistency    of    Moorish    Oi'iinmeiit. — In    the 

decorative  art  of  the  Moors,  all  lines  flow  out  from  a  parent 


88  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

stem.  Every  ornament,  no  matter  how  remote,  can  be  traced 
to  its  branch  and  root.  An  ornament  is  so  adapted  to  the 
surface  decorated  that  it  often  appears  to  suggest  the  general 
form  rather  than  to  have  been  suggested  by  it.  In  all  cases 
where  foliage  flows  out  naturally  from  a  parent  stem,  the  eye 
is  never  offended  as  is  done  by  modern  practice  in  the  random 
introduction  of  ornament  without  reason  for  its  existence. 

However  irregular  the  space  they  have  to  fill,  the  Moors 
commence  by  dividing  it  into  equal  areas,  and  around  these 
they  fill  in  their  detail,  but  invariably  return  to  their  parent 
stem.  They  appear  in  this  to  work  by  a  process  analogous 
to  that  of  nature. 

1O9.  Take,  for  instance,  the  leaf  of  a  vine,  the  object 
here  being  to  distribute  the  sap  from  the  parent  stem  to 
the  extremities;  it  is  evident  that  the  main  stem  should 
divide  the  leaf  as  nearly  as  possible  into  equal  areas.  So 
again  with  the  minor  divisions,  each  area  is  then  again 
subdivided  by  intermediate  lines  that  all  follow  the  same 
law  of  equal  distribution,  even  to  the  most  minute  filling 
in  of  the  stem  feeders. 

HO.  The  Moors  follow  another  principle — that  of  radi- 
ation from  the  parent  stem — as  may  be  seen  in  a  chestnut 
leaf,  wherein  the  leaflets  all  radiate  from  the  parent  stem, 
each  leaflet  diminishes  in  size  toward  the  extremities,  and 
each  area  is  proportionate  to  the  leaf. 

The  Orientals  carried  out  this  principle  with  marvelous 
perfection,  as  did  the  Greeks  in  their  honeysuckle  ornament. 
A  great  difference  between  the  Greek  ornament  and  that  of 
the  Arabian  and  Moresque,  however,  is  that  the  former 
grows  its  ornament  scroll  out  of  scroll  as  before  explained, 
and  the  latter  grow  their  ornaments  off  from  each  side  of  a 
continuous  stem.  With  the  Moors,  all  junctions  of  curved 
lines  with  curved  lines,  or  curved  with  straight,  are  tangen- 
tial to  one  another. 

111.     Conventionalism    In   Moorish    Ornament. — A 

charm  found  in  the  works  of   the  Arabs  and   Moors  lies  in 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  89 

their  conventional  treatment  of  ornament.  Their  creed  for- 
bade them  to  represent  living  forms,  and,  therefore,  they 
could  not  let  their  art  decline  to  realism  even  though  they  so 
desired.  They  worked  on  the  same  lines  that  nature  worked, 
but  always  avoided  a  direct  transcript  ;  they  took  her  prin- 
ciples but  they  did  not  copy  her  works. 


Coloring  In  Moorish.  Ornament.  —  The  coloring 
of  the  Moorish  ornaments  was  treated  as  skilfully  as  was  the 
form.  They  followed  certain  fixed  principles  founded  on 
observations  of  natural  laws.  The  colors  employed  on  their 
stucco  work  were  in  all  cases  a  combination  of  the  three  pri- 
maries —  blue,  red,  and  yellow,  the  last  being  represented  by 
gold  —  and  the  secondary  colors  —  purple,  green,  and  orange  — 
occurred  only  in  the  mosaic  dados.  These,  being  nearer  the 
eye,  formed  a  point  of  repose  from  the  more  brilliant  color- 
ing above. 

113.  It  may  be  remarked  here  that  among  the  Egyp- 
tians, Greeks,  Arabs,  and  Moors,  the  primary  colors  were 
used  exclusively  in  the  earliest  period  of  the  arts,  and,  during 
the  decadence,  the  secondary  colors  were  used.  Thus,  in 
Egypt,  the  temples  of  the  Pharaonic  period  were  painted 
entirely  in  primary  colors,  while  those  in  the  Ptolemaic  period 
used  the  secondaries.  The  early  Greek  temples  were  deco- 
rated in  the  primary  colors,  while  at  Pompeii  every  variety 
of  shade  possible  appears.  In  modern  Cairo,  and  in  the  East 
generally,  we  have  green  appearing  frequently  side  by  side 
with  red,  where  blue  would  have  been  used  in  the  earlier 
times.  This  is  equally  true  of  the  works  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  the  early  manuscripts  and  in  stained  glass,  the  primary 
colors  were  chiefly  used,  although  other  colors  were  not 
entirely  excluded,  while,  in  later  times,  every  variety  of  shade 
and  tint  is  used  indiscriminately,  with  preference  for  none. 

1  14.  In  Moorish  art,  the  primary  colors  were  used  in  the 
upper  portions  of  the  design,  and  the  secondary  and  tertiary 
colors  on  the  lower  portions.  This  is  entirely  in  accordance 
with  natural  law.  We  have  the  primary  bhie  in  the  sky,  the 


90  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

secondary  green  in  the  trees  and  fields,  and  the  tertiaries  in 
the  earth  itself.  It  is  also  observable  in  flowers,  where  the 
primary  colors  are  the  buds  and  flowers,  and  the  secondaries 
are  the  leaves  and  stalks. 

115.  The  ancients  always  observed  this  rule  in  the  best 
periods  of  art;  though  in  Egypt  we  do  occasionally  see  a 
secondary  green  used  in  the  upper  portions  of  a  temple,  but 
this  arises  from  the  fact  that  all  ornament  in  Egypt  was 
symbolic,  and  if  a  lotus  leaf  were  used  in  the  upper  part  of 
a  building,  it  would  necessarily  be  colored  green.      The  law 
is  true  in  general,  and  the  aspect  of  an  Egyptian  temple  of 
the  Pharaonic  period  usually  gives  the  primaries  above  the 
secondaries,   while,  in  the  Ptolemaic  period,  the  order  was 
inverted.     In  Pompeii,  we  occasionally  find  in  the  interior 
of  the  houses  a  gradual  coloring,  from  the  roof  down,  of  a 
light  to  a  darker  color,  ending  with  black,  but  this  was  by 
no  means  universal. 

116.  System  of  Moorish.  Coloring. — The    system  of 
Moorish  coloring  might  be   considered  absolutely  perfect. 
All  the  surfaces  were  modeled  and  proportioned  according 
to  the  color  they  were  to  receive,  and,  in  using  the  colors 
blue,  red,   and  gold,    they  took  care  to  place  them  in  such 
positions  that  they  should  be  best  seen  themselves  and  add 
most  to  the  general  effect.      On  molded  surfaces  they  placed 
red  (the  strongest  color  of  the  three)  in  the  depths,  where  it 
might  be  softened  by  shadow,  and  never  on  a  raised  surface; 
blue  was  placed  in  the  shade,  but  not  deep  shade ;  and  gold 
on  all  the  surfaces  exposed  to  strong  light,  for  it  was  evi- 
dent that  by  this  arrangement  alone  could  their  true  value 
be  obtained.      The  several  colors  are  either  separated  by 
white  bands  or  by  the  shadow  caused  by  the  relief  of  the 
ornament  itself,  and  this  seems  to  be  an  absolute  principle 
required  in    coloring — colors   should   never   be    allowed    to 
impinge  on  one  another. 

117.  In  Fig.  70,  the  background  «,  on  which  the  orna- 
ment is  placed,  was  of  a  deep-red  color,  while  the  leaf  forms  b 


§4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  01 

were  colored  with  the  primary  blue.  All  the  rest  of  the 
surface,  including  the  necks  of  the  columns,  was  gold,  and  a 
grand  harmonious  bloom  was  spread  over  the  whole  design. 


118.  Blending  of  Colors. — In  coloring  the  grounds  of 
the  various  diapers,  the  blue  always  occupies  the  largest 
area,  and  this  is  in  accordance  with  the  theory  in  optics  and 
the  experiments  that  have  been  made  with  the  prismatic 
spectrum.  Rays  of  light  are  said  to  neutralize  one  another  in 
the  proportion  of  3  yellow,  f>  red,  and  8  blue.  Thus,  it  will 
be  seen  that  a  quantity  of  blue  equal  to  the  sum  total  of  the 
required  quantity  of  red  and  yellow  will  produce  an  effect 
of  harmony  and  prevent  the  predominance  of  any  one  color 


92 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


over  the  others.  In  the  Alhambra,  yellow  was  replaced  by 
gold,  which  tended  toward  a  reddish  yellow,  and  the  blue  on 

this  account  was  further 
increased  in  proportion, 
to  counteract  the  tend- 
ency of  the  red  to  over- 
KINMNNNHX  XTN  N  N  x  M  power  the  other  colors. 

X  N  N  N  X  X  N  X  KX.MMMM  119'       Moorish   oma- 

ment  is  governed  by  cer- 

xlKNNNMMXXK  W 1OOI      tain  geometrical  patterns 

in  its  formation,  although 
the     number     of     these 
":A'~X:X;:X;:X*A'~X~A'-X-A'~X-:S;      patterns    is    small.       In 

*„/     *„*     *     x^/^w*     *     x     x     '         -i^-         wi     •        1 

K'-^-X-K^.~-K~-X-K-X-X'-K'-^':      Fig.  71  is  shown  an   in- 
terlaced pattern  consist- 
FIG.  71.  ing,  first,  of  vertical  and 

horizontal  lines  arranged 

in  pairs,  the  distance  between  each  pair  being  twice  the  dis- 
tance between  the  lines  composing  each  pair;  second,  of  diag- 
onal lines  drawn  through 

the  pattern  at  an  angle  ot 

/I  r\rvi  -i  [xrxix^i  [xfxixi  i\.ry 
45°,  and  spaced  a  distance 

apart  equal  to  the  verti- 
cal and  horizontal  pairs. 
The  diagonal  lines  are 
arranged  so  that  the  set 
of  squares  formed  by  their 
intersection  will  contain 
in  their  centers  the  inter- 
section of  the  vertical  and 
horizontal  pairs. 

ISO.      In   Fig.   72   is 
shown  a  slight  variation  FIG.  72. 

of    this   same    interlaced 

pattern,  wherein  the  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  are  drawn 
singly  and  the  diagonal  lines  are  drawn  in  pairs,  but  of 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  93 

slightly  different  proportion  from  Fig.  71.  The  amount 
of  Moorish  ornament  that  can  be  developed  from  these 
two  figures  is  unlimited,  and  the  Moors  themselves  extended 
even  this  limit  by  the  variety  of  coloring  in  the  different 
parts. 

Figs.  73  and  74  are  based  on  the  system  shown  in  Fig.  71, 
and  Figs.  75  and  76  are  developed  from  the  system  shown 


FIG.  73. 


in  Fig.  72.     A  slight  variation  of  the  systems  themselves 
will  produce  most  remarkable  results  in  the  figures. 


FIG.  74. 


121.      However  much  disguised,  the   whole   ornamen- 
tation of  the  Moors   is  constructed   geometrically.      Their 


94  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

fondness  for    geometrical  forms   is   evinced    by  the    great 
use  of  mosaics,   in  which  their  imagination  had  full   play. 


FIG.  75. 


However  complicated  may  be  their  patterns,   they  are   all 
extremely   simple    when   the   principle  of   setting   them   is 


once  understood.      The}1  all     arise   from   the  intersection   of 
equally  distant  lines  around  fixed  centers. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  95 

WESTERN  ABT. 


CEI/TIC  ORNAMENT. 

122.  Origin  and  Character. — In  studying  the  orna- 
ment of  Western  Europe,  we  follow  a  chronological  order 
instead  of  an  ethnological  one,  as  we  have  been  doing  here- 
tofore, the  history  of  ornament  in  this  section  being  pro- 
gressive and  free  from  outside  influences  except  to  a  very 
limited  extent. 

When  Byzantine  art  spread  over  Western  Europe,  as  it 
did  about  the  twelfth  century,  it  must  have  found  among 
the  nations  of  Celtic  origin  an  indigenous  art,  arising  from 
the  peculiar  aptitudes  of  that  race.  The  Celts  undoubtedly 
had  a  spontaneous  national  art,  though  its  birthplace, 
whether  in  Scandinavia  or  Ireland,  has  never  been  satisfac- 
torily decided. 

123.  Interlacing  forms  almost  the  only  element  of  the 
Celtic  designs  of  the  earlier  period,  and  this  establishes  its 
antiquity,   for    the    intertwining   ornament   is  essentially  a 
primitive  style.      Its  distinctive  mark  is  the  division  of  the 
surface,  decorated  by  such  a  combination  of  lines  that  the 
development   is   usually  happy,   possible,   and    logical,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  origin  of  these  designs  was  pro- 
cured originally  from    interlaced    cords.      The  pliability  of 
this  original  type  would  account  for  the  curved  instead  of 
acute  angles,  this  being  a  characteristic  difference  between 
the  Celtic  and  Arabian  geometrical  designs. 

124.  The  variety  of  productions  obtainable  from  such 
simple  elements  is  remarkable.      In  many  of  them  the  com- 
plications prove,  by  their  skilful  divisions,  and  the  ingenuity 
of  the  windings,  a  practical  comprehension  of  ornamental 
construction.      There  is  lacking,  however,  in  this  style,  a 
vital  element — the  element  of  more  extensive  representation 
— and  its  resources  were  threatened  with  exhaustion  from 


96  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

having  used  every  possible  combination  of  the  intertwinings 
of  a  cord. 


Introduction  of  Animal  Forms.  —  In  combi- 
nation with  Byzantine  art,  Celtic  ornament  advanced  in 
style.  A  portion  of  the  original  interlacings  was  still 
retained,  and  for  the  discarded  part  was  substituted  the 
stem  from  which  sprang  the  leafwork  and  terminated  in 
floral  spans. 

Having  thus  attained  some  decorative  richness,  the  Celtic 
style  rose  to  the  level  of  art  ;  at  the  same  time,  the  differ- 
ence already  mentioned  between  it  and  purely  geometric 
conceptions,  such  as  are  usually  found  in  Arabian  decora- 
tions, became  more  striking,  from  the  frequent  introduction 
of  the  heads  of  quadrupeds  and  birds,  serving  as  terminals 
to  some  of  the  principal  lines  that  were  made  to  represent 
bodies  elongated  out  of  all  just  proportion  or  probability, 
and  from  which  emerge  feet  and  claws  corresponding  with 
the  head.  Such  as  they  are,  these  fantastic  and  grotesque 
images  constitute  a  separate  art  that  the  interlacings  alone 
could  never  have  reached. 

126.  Distinguishing  Characteristics.  —  The  chief 
characteristics  of  the  early  Celtic  style  consist  :  first,  of  the 
entire  absence  of  foliage  or  other  vegetable  ornament;  sec- 
ond, the  extreme  intricacy  and  excessive  minuteness  and 
elaboration  of  the  various  patterns,  most  of  which  are  geo- 
metrical, consisting  of  interlaced  ribbon  work,  diagonal  or 
spiral  lines  —  each  of  which  invariably  wove  itself  alternately 
above  and  below  each  successive  transverse  strand  —  strange, 
monstrous  animals,  and  birds  with  long  topknots  and  tongues 
and  tails  intertwining  in  almost  endless  knots.  Some  of  the 
manuscripts  have  entire  pages  covered  with  elaborate  pat- 
terns in  compartments,  the  whole  forming  a  beautiful  cruci- 
form design,  and  one  of  these  facing  a  commencement  of 
each  of  the  four  gospels. 

The  labor  employed  in  such  a  mass  of  work  must 
have  been  immense,  the  care  most  infinite,  as  a  critical 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


97 


examination    with    a   magnifying,    glass    does    not    detect 
an   error  in   the   truth   of   the   lines   or   the   regularity   of 
the   interlacings;    yet   with   all   this   minuteness,  the   most 
harmonious  effect  of 
coloring     has     been 
produced. 

127.      Intricacy 
of  Design.— Of  the 

curious  intricacy  of 
some  of  these  designs 
an  idea  may  be  ob- 
tained by  following 
a  ribbon  in  one  of 
these  patterns,  as, 
for  instance,  in  the 
upper  compartment 
of  Fig.  77.  The 
method  adopted  to  FIG.  n. 

secure   this  intricate 

interlacing,  so  that  each  strap  shall  alternately  cross  above 
and  below  each  following   one,   can   be  better  understood 


by  reference  to  Fig.  78,  where  the  preliminary  arrange- 
ment of  a  woven  pattern  is  laid  out  at  (a)  and  the  turning 
and  joining  of  its  exterior  ends  are  shown  at  (#),  while 


08 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


at  (r)  is  seen  the  completed  interlacement  and  complication 
of  interior  curves  and  returnings. 


FIG.  79. 


Sometimes  two  ribbons  run  parallel  to  each  other,  but  are 
interlaced  alternately,  as  in  Fig.  79.     When  allowable,  the 


FIG.  80. 

ribbon  is  dilated  and  angulated  to  fill  up  particular  places  in 
the  design,  as  in  Fig.  80.     The  simplest  modification  of  this 

pattern,  of  course,  is  the 
double  oval  seen  in  the 
angles  of  Fig.  81.  This 
occurs  in  Greek  and  Syr- 
ian manuscript,  in  Roman 
tessellated  pavements,  but 
rarely  in  Celtic  manu- 
script. 

128.       Symbolism.— 

No  symbolic  meaning 
seems  to  have  been  at- 
tached to  the  Celtic  orna- 
FIG.  si.  ments,  except  perhaps  in 

the  designs  so  frequently 

found  without  beginning  or  end,    in    which  appears   what 

might  be  a  symbol  of  eternity. 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  00 

The  union  of  the  Celtic  and  Byzantine  styles  did  not 
entirely  give  way  to  the  Gothic  style  with  which  it  long 
existed.  It  furnished  types  for  the  finest  ornamentation 
of  glass  and  manuscripts,  that  in  this  period,  from  the 
eleventh  to  the  fourteenth  century,  resembles  stained  glass 
on  a  reduced  scale. 


GOTHIC    OKNAMTCNT. 

129.  involution. — Gothic  art  grew  out  of  and  suc- 
ceeded the  Romanesque  in  Western  Europe  in  the  same 
manner  that  the  Byzantine  did  in  the  East.  Each  was  the 
result  of  an  attempt  to  adapt  a  modified  Roman  style  to  the 
new  conditions  caused  by  political,  religious,  and  geograph- 
ical changes.  In  Western  Europe,  however,  the  Roman- 
esque style  failed  to  develop  into  a  new  architectural  system 
until  about  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century,  while  the 
Byzantine  became  a  perfect  style  of  art  before  the  close  of 
the  sixth  century. 

ISO.  Influence  of  Religion. — Gothic  art  in  every  par- 
ticular was  directly  opposed  to  classic  art,  not  only  because 
it  was  developed  by  the  nations  that  had  conquered  Rome, 
but  because  it  was  a  Christian  art,  in  opposition  to  a  pagan 
art,  and  its  architecture  was  based  on  an  economical  system 
of  construction,  while  that  of  classic  Rome  was  an  extrava- 
gant construction.  Its  greatest  monuments  were  built  to 
the  glorification  of  the  Supreme  Being,  while  those  of 
Roman  art  were  for  the  glorification  of  the  empire.  It  is 
not  surprising,  therefore,  to  find  the  best  and  purest  exam- 
ples of  Gothic  art  in  localities  most  distant  from  Rome,  and, 
as  we  gradually  approach  the  south  of  Europe,  we  find 
Gothic  ornament  tainted  more  and  more  with  classic  influ- 
ence until,  in  Italy,  the  examples  are  so  different  in  feeling 
and  expression  from  those  we  find  in  England  that  they 
constitute  almost  an  entirely  different  style.  In  PYance, 
the  style  is  not  as  pure  as  in  England,  but  it  contains  none 
of  the  extreme  variations  seen  in  Italy,  and  being  patterned 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


more  or  less  after  the  English  examples,  derives  what  good 
it  has  from  that  country. 

131.     German  and  English  Gothic. 

In  Germany,  Gothic  art  was  copied  from 
the  French,  and  carried  the  imperfec- 
tions of  the  French  style  to  a  still  lower 
degree,  and  its  entrance  into  Italy  from 
Germany  renders  its  condition  in  the  seat 
of  the  old  Roman  Empire  so  debased  that 
it  possesses  none  of  the  underlying  prin- 
ciples of  the  pure  Gothic  style. 

English-Gothic   ornament  may  be  di- 
vided   into   three   general  periods,   each 
associated  approximately  with    the   cen- 
tury of  its  greatest  development.     These 
periods  are  called  the  Early  English,  or  thirteenth  century, 
the  Decorated,  or  fourteenth  century,  and  the  Perpendicular, 
or  fifteenth  century. 


FIG.  83. 


FIG.  84. 


Generally  speaking,   the  Early  English  period   is  char- 
acterized .  architecturally   by    long,    narrow,     lancet-shaped 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


101 


windows  arranged  in  groups  of  two  or  three,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  82,  the  space  between  the  openings  usually  containing 
a  third  perforation  in  the  form  of  a  trefoil  or  quaterfoil 
included  under  the  same  dripstone  as  the  window  opening. 
The  mullions,  or  bars,  separating  the  window  openings 
were,  toward  the  latter  part  of  this  period,  split  to  form  a 
network  in  the  upper  part  of  the  window,  called  tracery, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  83.  This  tracery  was  greatly  elaborated 
as  the  style  advanced,  and  filled  the  upper  portion  of  the 
window  with  a  complicated  series  of  geometrical  forms  that 
were  frequently  richly  elaborated  with  a  ball-flower  orna- 
ment, as  shown  in  Fig.  84. 

132.     The  Ball-Flower  Ornament. — The  ball-flower 
ornament  is  characteristic  of   the  Decorated  period,  and 


FIG.  85. 

consists  of  conventionalized  floral  forms  nearly  spherical  in 
shape,  a  detail  of  which  is  shown 
in  Fig.  85.  They  were  not  always 
used  to  such  an  excess  as  is  shown 
in  Fig.  84,  and  were  inserted  un- 
der the  dripstone  at  regular  inter- 
vals, as  shown  in  Fig.  86,  which 
is  a  sedile,  or  seat,  sometimes 
built  in  the  interior  walls  of  a 
church.  The  dripstones  of  this 
period  usually  terminated  at  each 
end  in  the  carved  head  of  some 
person  of  prominence,  such  as  the 
king  or  bishop,  as  shown  in  Fig.  84. 

As  we  approach  the  Perpendicular  period,   the   lines  of 


1-1. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


tracery  are  still  more  complicated   but   arranged   more  in 

perpendicular  pan- 
els, the  horizontal 
elements  being  sup- 
pressed as  much  as 
possible. 

13:$.  Designs 
for  "W  i  nd  o  w 
Heads. — All  these 
designs  for  window 
heads  were  worked 
out  on  simple  geo- 
metrical combina- 
tions, as  shown  in 
Fig.  87,  which  is  a 
window  with  six 
days,  or  openings, 
divided  in  two  groups  of  three  each  by  means  of  pointed 


FIG.  87. 


FIG.  88. 


II 1STOR  1C  ORNAMENT. 


103 


arches  shown  at  b  a  c  and  c  d  t\  over  which  a  circle  is 
struck,  with  its  center  at  o,  whose  diameter  is  equal  to  half 
the  width  of  the  window,  and  its  circumference  is  divided 
into  twelve  parts,  as  shown  at  1,  2,  3,  h  etc.  Within  each 
of  these  parts,  small  circles,  tangent  to  one  another  and  to 
the  circumference  of  the  great  circle,  are  described,  and 
form  the  generating  elements  of  the  interior  design. 


FIG.  89. 

This  example  is  given  with  its  construction  lines  simply 
to  show  how  these  details  are  geometrically  worked  out. 
All  the  elements  of  the  design  can  be  located  and  executed 
by  means  of  a  pair  of  compasses  and  a  straightedge,  without 
any  other  device  to  lay  off  measurements. 

The  lower  part  of  these  windows  on  the  exterior,  during 
the  Perpendicular  period,  as  said  before,  were  divided  into 


104 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


105 


long  panels,  the  total  window  opening  usually  being  of 
immense  area,  as  shown  in  Fig.  88,  which  is  the  west  front 
of  St.  George's  Chapel,  at  Windsor.  This  also  shows  the 
general  exterior  appearance  of  the  Gothic  architecture  of 
Great  Britain,  and,  with  the  west  front  of  Westminster 
Abbey,  shown  in  Fig.  89,  will  be  interesting  to  compare 


FIG.  92. 

with  the  Gothic  art  of  other  countries,  which  we  will  con- 
sider hereafter. 

134.  Freiu'H  AVimlow  Tracery. — In  France,  the 
progress  of  window  tracery  was  similar  to  that  of  Eng- 
land, but  on  less  systematic  lines,  and  the  doors  and  win- 
dows tend  more  to  rich  elaboration  on  the  exterior,  usu- 
ally being  carved  with  full-length  human  figures,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  90,  which  is  one  of  the  entrance  doors  to 
the  church  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  the  full  front  elevation 
of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  HI.  A  comparison  of  Fig.  01 


IOC 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


with  the  two  examples  of  English  Gothic  will  be  interest- 
ing, showing  the  tendency  of  the  latter  to  vertical  lines 
more  characteristic  of  the  Gothic  style,  and  of  the  French 
to  horizontal  lines  influenced  by  its  closer  proximity  to 
classic  art. 

1  35.     (iothie  Architecture  in  Italy. — In  Italy,  Gothic 
architecture  is  unique,    and     though    the    Palazzo  Vecchio, 


FIG.  93. 

at  Florence,  shown  in  Fig.  92,  possesses  the  crude,  bold, 
unassuming  construction  of  the  early  Gothic  castles,  it 
scarcely  represents  the  fundamental  principle  on  which  the 
Italian  design  is  developed.  It  is  in  Venice  that  we  find 
more  elaborate  examples,  where  window  tracery  is  carried 
to  a  most  fanciful  extreme. 

The  Foscari  Palace,  shown  in  Fig.  '.):>,  shows  the  gradual 


HISTORIC  ORNAiMENT. 


107 


development  of  this  window  treatment,  which  seems  to  con- 
stitute the  entire  idea  of  the  Italian-Gothic  style.     In  the 


FIG.  94. 


lower  story  we  have  the  plain  ogfival  arch,  and  in  the  central 
portions  of  the  second  and  third  stories,  small  colonnades, 


108  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

connected  by  pointed  arches,  and  in  the  upper  of  the  two 
with  pointed  arches,  separated  by  plate  tracery.  In  the  top 
story,  this  tracery  is  carried  to  an  elaborate  extreme.  This 
system  of  treatment,  though  based  on  entirely  different 
structural  ideas  from  the  Gothic  of  the  North,  brought 
about  many  happy  results,  however,  and  the  palace  of  Con- 
tarini  Fasan,  also  known  as  the  House  of  Desdemona,  shown 
in  Fig.  94,  exhibits  how  adaptable  the  style  of  this  Vene- 
tian work  is  to  modern  requirements  by  the  careful  pro- 
portioning and  grouping  of  its  parts  and  treatment  of  its 
details. 

It  is  not  in  the  exterior  of  these  buildings  that  we  find 
the  most  of  value  to  us  in  ornamental  design,  except  possibly 
in  Venetian  work;  therefore,  the  treatment  of  the  interior 
details  we  will  now  consider  in  regular  order,  having  under- 
stood the  transition  in  style  that  took  place  from  the  British 
Isles  to  the  Italian  peninsula. 

136.  Evolution  of  Gothic  Ornament. — The  transi- 
tion of  the  round  arch,  characteristic  of  the  Romanesque 
style,  to  the  pointed  arch,  characteristic  of  the  Gothic  style, 
is  easily  traced  in  buildings  where  the  two  styles  are  inter- 
mingled, many  of  these  being  extant  about  the  beginning  ot 
the  thirteenth  century,  as  shown  in  Fig.  95,  which  is  taken 
from  an  arcade  of  Canterbury  Cathedral,  in  England.  But 
the  passage  from  Romanesque  ornament  to  that  of  the  Gothic 
period  is  by  no  means  so  easily  traced. 

All  traces  of  the  acanthus  leaf  have  by  this  time  disap- 
peared, and  we  find  a  purely  conventional  style  of  ornament 
prevalent  in  all  buildings  of  the  time.  The  nearest  approach 
to  the  acanthus  formation  we  find  in  the  illuminated  manu- 
scripts of  the  twelfth  century,  where  ornamental  forms,  such 
as  shown  in  Fig.  96,  are  used,  and  appear  to  have  been 
derived  from  some  old  Greek  manuscripts,  as  Gothic  orna- 
ments are  formed  by  a  continuous  stem  throwing  off  leaves 
on  the  outer  side  and  terminating  in  a  flower. 

Early  English  ornament  is  the  most  perfect,  both  in  prin- 
ciple and  in  execution,  of  all  the  Gothic  period.  There  is  as 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


10ft 


much  elegance  in  distinct  modulations  of  form  as  there  is  in 
the  ornament  of  the  Greeks.  It  is  always  in  harmony  with 
the  structural  features  of  the  building,  and  always  grows 


FIG.  95. 

naturally  from  them.  It  fulfils  every  one  of  the  conditions 
that  we  desire  to  find  in  a  perfect  style  of  art,  but  it  remained 
perfect  only  so  long  as  the  style  remained  conventional.  As 
the  style  became  less  idealized 
and  more  direct  in  imitation, 
it  ceased  to  be  an  ornament  of 
structural  features,  but  became 
ornament  applied. 


137.      Characteristics.  — 

In  the  capitals  of  the  columns 
of  Early  English  architecture, 
the  ornament  rises  directly 
from  the  shaft,  above  the  neck- 
ing of  which  the  column  splits 


FIG.  96. 


J10 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


into  a  series  of  stems,  eaeli  stem  terminating  in  a  flower,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  I) 7.  This  is  analogous  to  the  mode  of  deco- 
rating the  Egyptian  eapital.  In  the  decorated  style,  on  the 
contrary,  where  a  much  nearer  approacli  to  nature  was 
attempted,  it  was  no  longer  possible  to  treat  a  natural  leaf  as 


FIG.  98. 

part  of  the  shaft,  and  therefore  the  shaft  is  terminated  by  a 
bell  shape,  around  which  the  leaves  are  twined,  and  the 
more  natural  these  were  made,  the  less  artistic  became  the 
arrangement,  as  shown  in  Fig.  98.  This  method  of  applying 
ornament  reminds  us  of  the  Roman-Corinthian  capital. 


FIG.  99. 


FIG.  100. 


In.  the  Perpendicular  period,  the  capitals  of  the  columns 
were  usually  plain,  and  the  shaft  consisted  of  a  cluster  of 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


Ill 


small  columns.  In  some  large  buildings,  however,  the  capi- 
tals were  carved  with  shallow  foliage  of  a  pronounced 
geometrical  shape,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9!J. 

In  foliage  and  running  ornaments  on  bands  and  moldings, 
the  Early  English  period  shows  examples  where  the  lines  of 
the  ornament  follow 
the  general  directions 
of  the  lines  of  the  mold- 
ing, and  the  foliated 
work  is  conventionally 
rendered,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  is  graceful 
and  natural,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  100.  In  painted 

bands,    the   lines  itsti-  FlG  101 

ally  are  easy  and  flow- 
ing, following  the  principle  of  carved  work,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  101. 

During  the  Decorated  period,  however,  there  is  less  effort 
made  to  continue  the  foliage  in  the  direction  of  the  molding, 

and  the  guiding  stem  fre- 
quently wanders  directly 
across  the  molding,  from 
one  side  to  the  other,  pre- 
serving the  governing 
principle  of  throwing 
leaves  off  alternately, 
but  at  the  same  time 
chopping  the  molding  up 
into  a  number  of  sec- 
tions rather  than  giving 
it  a  feeling  of  continuity. 
In  Fig.  102  is  shown 
an  example  of  molding 
from  this  period,  where 
the  guiding  stem  of  the  foliation  crosses  and  rccrosses  the 
molding  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  its  direction, 
and  though  the  leaves  are  arranged  to  cover  up  this  guiding 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


stem  to  a  certain  extent,  the  fact  still  remains  that  its  most 
prominent  sections  are  seen  across  the  molding,  instead  of 
flowing  with  it. 

138.     In  the  Perpendicular  period,  the  system  of  decora- 
tion is  still  further  removed  from  that  of  the  Early  English, 

and  the  molding  is  fre- 
quently divided  up  into  a 
number  of  rectangular 

v      V  *5»    nmm  •  '?      *jy»PBS    panels,  each   of  which   is 

decorated     to     represent 

fggjjiJBHBiegigiifiJljiijgttgBj^^  some      specific       natural 

FIO.  \03.  form,  but  so  convention- 

alized  as   to   be  reduced 

to  a  pronounced  geometrical  outline.  This  is  shown  in 
Fig.  103,  where  the  leaves  of  the  grape  vine  are  reduced  to 


FIG.  104. 


perfect  rectangles,  spaced  evenly  along  the  molding,  between 
which  bunches  of  grapes  are  geometrically  arranged. 


1 39.  Spandrels.  —  In  the 
Spandrels  of  the  arches,  so 
long  as  the  conventionalism  of 
the  Early  English  style  was 
maintained,  one  main  stem 
was  distributed  over  the  panel, 
from  which  sprang  leaves  and 
flowers,  as  shown  in  Fig.  104; 
but  as  the  style  advanced  the 
stem  ceased  to  be  the  guiding 


FIG.  105. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


FIG.  106. 


form  of  the  ornament,  and,  in  the  endeavor  to  represent  in 
stone  the  softness  of  nature,  lost  all  its  grace  and  decorative 
characteristics.  Finally,  the  stem  as  a  leading  feature  dis- 
appears, and  \ve  find  the 

spandrels  filled  with  three 
immense  leaves,  springing 
from  a  twisted  stem  in 
the  center,  and  bearing 
no  structural  relation  to 
the  panel  on  which  they 
are  planted,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  105. 

14O.      Diapers.  —  In 

the  painted  wall  decora- 
tions and  diapers,  the  Early 
English  artists  usually 
divided  the  surface  into  a 
number  of  geometrical  forms  within  which  a  simple  con- 
ventional ornament  was  introduced  resembling  tile  work. 
The  devices  covering  these  ornaments  were  sometimes 

heraldic  and  other  times 
based  on  forms  borrowed 
from  the  vegetable  world, 
as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  106. 
During  the  Decorated 
period,  the  wall  divisions 
are  less  naturally  divided, 
and  circular  disks,  within 
which  are  stenciled  geo- 
metrical patterns,  are 
spread  over  a  wall  sur- 
face, and  between  them 
are  arranged  shields  with 
coats  of  arms  and  other 

X*  IG.   1U7. 

devices,     as     shown      in 

Fig.  107.     Another  system  prevalent  in  the  Decorated  period 
was  to  divide  the  wall  into  a  number  of  bands,  each  of  which 


114 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


FIG.  108. 


was  decorated  with  a  running  ornament,  as  shown  in  Fig.  108, 
where  the  character  of  this  running  ornament  is  not  widely 
different  from  that  seen  in  the  Early  English  period,  as 

shown  in  Fig.  101.  How- 
ever, introduced  with 
this  foliation  are  forms 
from  the  animal  world 
that  seem  to  possess  no 
relation  to  the  design,  or 
the  ornament,  or  the  posi- 
tion that  they  occupy. 

The  diapers  of  the 
Perpendicular  period  are 
attempts  at  realism,  and 
in  Fig.  109  is  shown  a 
painted  wall  in  which 
the  pointed  arch  of 
ogival  form  and  the  foliations  and  crockets  characteristic 
of  the  carved  work  of  this  period  are  attempted  in  the  repro- 
duction on  the  flat  surface.  This  form  of  arch,  with  its 
compound  curve  —  con- 
vex below  and  concave 
above — is  a  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  the  Per- 
pendicular period,  as  is 
also  the  subdivision  of  its 
under  surface  into  the 
small  arches  or  foliations, 
as  shown.  Within  each  of 
these  panels  (which  in  all 
work  were  long  and  nar- 
row, giving  the  style  its 
name  of  Perpendicular), 
the  wall  was  decorated  in 
the  conventional  pattern 
'as  shown,  and  executed  in 
two  colors.  Similar  patterns  were  also  used  for  silks,  tapes- 
tries, and  other  fabrics  of  this  period. 


FIG.  109. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


115 


In  Fig.  110  is  shown  another  style  of  wall  treatment  of 
the  Perpendicular  period,  where  the  surface  remains  flat 
and  no  attempt  is  made  to  depict  arches  or  moldings  bor- 
rowed from  carved  ornament,  but  details  from  the  vegetable 
world  are  drawn  realis- 
tically against  a  back- 
ground interspersed 
with  conventionalized 
outlines  of  leaf  forms. 

141.  Zenith  of 
Architectural  Devel- 
opment.— In  the  thir- 
teenth century,  beyond 
all  others,  architecture 
was  at  its  zenith.  The 
mosques  of  Cairo,  the 
Alhambra  in  Spain, 
Westminster  Abbey, 
and  the  Salisbury  and 
Lincoln  cathedrals,  in 

England,  all  possess  the  same  secret  of  producing  the 
broadest  general  effect  combined  with  the  most  elaborate 
decoration.  In  all  these  buildings  there  is  a  family  like- 
ness ;  although  the  forms  differ  and  the  forces  that  have 
called  them  into  existence  are  totally  unlike,  yet  the  prin- 
ciples that  they  embrace  arc  the  same.  They  all  exhibit  the 
same  care  for  the  leading  masses  of  composition,  the  same 
appreciation  of  the  undulations  of  form,  the  same  correct 
observation  of  natural  principles  in  the  ornamentation,  and 
the  same  elegance  and  refinement  in  all  the  decoration. 

The  attempt  to  produce  at  the  present  day  a  building  of 
the  character  of  those  in  the  thirteenth  century  would  be  vain 
indeed.  Whitewashed  walls  with  stained  glass  and  encaustic 
tiles  cannot  alone  sustain  the  effect  that  was  arrived  at  when 
every  molding  had  its  color  best  .adapted  to  develop  its 
form,  when  from  the  floor  to  the  roof  not  an  inch  of  space 
but  that  had  its  elaborate  and  appropriate  ornament — an 


FIG.  no. 


116 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


effect  that  must  have  been  glorious  beyond  conception.  In 
fact,  so  glorious  a  point,  indeed,  had  the  style  reached  that 
it  exhausted  itself  by  the  effort ;  the  light  burned  out.  Not 
only  in  architecture,  but  in  all  decorative  arts  that  accom- 
panied it,  immediately  there  began  a  decline — a  decline  that 
never  stopped  until  the  Gothic  style  was  dead. 

142.  Gothic  Art  in  France. — In  France,  the  three 
periods  of  Gothic  art  are  known  by  the  terms  :  (1)  Early 
French,  corresponding  in  period  with  the  Early  English, 
but  beginning  a  trifle  later;  (2)  Rayonnant,  meaning  radi- 
ating, and  corresponding  with  the  Decorated  period  of 
English  art;  and  (3)  Flamboyant,  meaning  flame-like,  and 

corresponding  with  the 
Perpendicular  period  of 
English  art. 

143.  Early  French 
Period.  —  The  Early 
French  capital,  though 
patterned  after  the  Early 
English  style,  does  not 
possess  its  most  impor- 
tant characteristic — that 
of  the  apparent  spring- 
ing of  the  foliation  from 
stems  bound  together  at 
the  neck  of  a  column  by 
a  carved  band.  The 
capital  in  Fig.  Ill  pos- 
sesses the  characteristic 
of  having  its  foliage 
spring  from  the  top  of 
the  column  and  spread 

out  gracefully  under  the  abacus  that  receives  the  weight 
from  above,  but  this  foliation  seems  to  be  planted  on  a 
surface,  rather  than  to  be  forming  a  part  and  detail  of  the 
supporting  member  itself. 


FIG.  111. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


117 


144.     Hayommnt  Period. — In  the  liayoimant  period, 

the  capitals  of  the  columns,  like  those  of  the  Decorated 
period  in  England,  are 
formed  of  bell  shapes 
over  which  foliage  is 
arranged;  but,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  112,  the  French 
arrangement  is  far  infe- 
rior to  the  English,  inas- 
much as  no  attempt  is 
here  made  to  have  the 
foliage  a  part  of  the  sup- 
porting construction.  It 
is  evident  that  the  bell 
shape  does  the  support- 


FlG.    112. 

ing  of  the  superimposed 
load,  and  the  carved  vine  is 
simply  an  ornament  laid  on 
the  surface  to  break  up  its 
monotony. 

145.  Flamboyant  Pe- 
riod. —  The  Flamboyant 
style,  shown  in  Fig.  113, 
carries  this  fault  to  still 
greater  extent,  and  the 
twisted  foliation  is  plainly 
planted  on  the  bell  shape, 
growing  from  nothing,  supporting  nothing,  and  apparently 
ready  to  drop  off,  as  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  be  left 


FIG.  us. 


118 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


FIG.  114. 


there.  In  Fig.  112  the  vine  is  of  a  clinging-  character  and 
would  naturally  appear  to  attach  itself  to  the  capital, 
although  it  does  not  appear  to  grow  naturally  out  of  the 
shaft  of  the  column  in  the  manner  characteristic  of  the 
foliage  of  the  Early  English  capitals.  In  Fig.  113  the  folia- 
tion is  not  only  of  no  particular  character,  but  it  is  simply 

"stuck  on"  with  no 
origin  and  no  struc- 
tural relation  and  con- 
veys no  idea  of  fitness 
or  propriety. 

In  the  running  bands 
and  moldings  we  find 
the  same  characteristics 
as  those  of  England,  but 
not  so  pure  in  form. 
In  Fig.  114  the  foli- 
ated forms,  it  will  be 
observed,  appear  to  be 
attached  to  and  grow 
from  the  top  and  bot- 
tom members  of  the 
molding.  The  line  of 
their  growth  is  curved 
toward  the  center  of 
the  molding,  but,  at 
the  same  time,  follows 
the  line  of  the  mold- 
ing itself  and  appears 
continuous  with  it ; 
while  in  the  Rayonnant 
period,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  115,  the  molding 
is  divided  up  in  sec- 
FlG  116  tions  more  like  the 

Perpendicular  period  of 

England,  and  the  leaves,  though  growing  apparently  from 
the    stonework   beneath    them,  are    nevertheless    stiff    and 


FIG.  115. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


119 


geometrical  and  do  not  appear  to  belong-  to  the  surface  on 
which  they  are  placed. 

A  characteristic  of  the  Flamboyant  style  is  seen  in  Fig.  110, 
where  the  guiding  stem  of  the  ornament  that  is  carved 
on  the  molding  is  in  some  places  clear  from  the  molding 
itself,  and  though  it  shows  great  skill  in  the  carving, 
exhibits  little  art  in  the 
design.  The  leaves  and 
floral  forms  are  twisted 
so  that  their  ends  repre- 
sent forked  flames,  from 
which  the  period  gets  its 
name,  and  there  is  no 
structural  relation  be- 
tween the  foliation  and 
its  moldings. 

146.      Early    French 

diapers    divide    the   wall 

surface  into  geometrical 

forms  in  a  manner»similar 

to  that  in  England,  and  stenciled  within  these  figures  are 

characteristic  devices  typical  of  the   nation  and  the   style. 

In  Fig.  117  we  have  a 
wall  divided  intolozenge 
shapes  by  diagonal  lines, 
within  some  of  which 
flcurs-dc-lis  are  sten- 
ciled in  gilt  on  a  blue 
ground,  while  a  simple 
foliated  outline  is  sten- 
ciled within  the  others 
on  a  gold  ground. 

In  Fig.  118  is  shown 
a  more  complicated  de 
sign  based  on  the  inter- 
section of  a  number  of 
FIG.  ns.  circles     whose     centers 


FIG.  117. 


120 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


are  found  at  the  intersections  of  evenly  spaced  vertical  and 
horizontal  lines.  In  this  case,  the  ground  of  the  decoration 
is  pink,  and  the  outlines  of  the  subdivision  and  the  stenciled 

forms  within  them  are  in  gold. 

<• 

147.     The  character  of  surface  treatment  in  the  Rayon- 
nant    period  is  best    shown    in   Fig.   119,  which   is   from 

an    illuminated    manuscript.     The 
lines     of     the     foliage     and     the 


FIG.  119. 


FIG.  120. 


geometrical  rendering  of  the  flowers  are  characteristic 
of  this  style  of  work,  and  the  twisted  forms  are  suggest- 
ive of  the  change  that 
is  taking  place  toward 
the  Flamboyant  period. 
In  Fig.  120  is  shown 
another  example  from 
illuminated  manuscript, 
where  the  naturalistic 
treatment  of  the  flower, 
with  the  foliage  reduced 
to  a  flame-like  outline, 
shows  the  systematic  ren- 
dering of  all  work  of  this 
period.  FIG. 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  121 

148.  German-Gothic  Details. — German-Gothic  de- 
tails were  influenced  more  largely  by  France,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  borrowed  ideas  direct  from  England.     Fig.  121 
shows  a  wall  diaper  divided  into  circles  somewhat  after  the 
manner  of  the  English  example  shown  in  Fig.  107,  within 
which  geometrical  forms  are  stenciled  in  some  cases,  while 
in  others  the  conventional  brush  form  of  the  eagle,  emblem- 
atic of  Germany,   is  rendered  in   light  green  on  a  darker 
ground  of  the  same  color. 

149.  Misinterpretation    of    Gothic. — As    the    term 

"  Gothic  "  as  applied  to  architecture  is,  in  the  minds  of  most 
persons,  associated  almost  entirely  with  ecclesiastical  edifices, 
we  are  all  likely  to  labor  under  the  impression  that  the 
medieval  cathedrals  were  the  only  structures  built  during 
these  dark  ages.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  every  build- 
ing erected  during  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries, 
throughout  Western  Europe,  was  built  in  what  we  now  call 
the  Gothic  style.  In  order  that  we  may  better  understand 
this  domestic  architecture  and  its  details,  from  which  much 
of  our  ornament  at  the  present  day  has  descended,  it  will  be 
necessary  for  us  to  look  into  the  habits,  customs,  methods 
of  living,  and  government  of  the  people  at  this  period. 

Kings,  princes,  earls,  and  even  the  lesser  nobility,  all  lived 
in  castles  during  this  period,  and  these  structures  form  a 
most  important  part  of  the  architecture,  as  they  are  undoubt- 
edly the  prototype  of  the  modern  dwelling  house  from  which 
have  descended  all  those  details  of  house  plan  that  modern 
requirements  have  brought  into  service. 

150.  Feudal  System. — At  this  time  all  lands  were  held 
iinder  what    is  known  as   the  feudal  system.     When   the 
tribes  from  the  North  had  conquered  Rome  and  overrun  the 
entire  Roman  Empire,  the  generals  or  chiefs  of  the  different 
military  organizations  were  given  lands  for  themselves  and 
their  subjects  over  which  they  ruled  as  kings  and  princes. 
This  system  existed  throughout  all  Europe,  but  with  slightly 
varying  conditions  in  Italy,  France,  Germany,  and  England, 


1:2;}  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

according  to  the  influences  of  each  locality.  The  general 
principle  was  the  same,  however,  and  we  will  confine  our  dis- 
cussion simply  to  the  effect  of  this  system  in  France,  inas- 
much as  it  reached  a  most  thorough  organization  there,  and 
had  a  more  marked  influence  on  the  subsequent  art  of  the 
period  of  the  Renaissance. 

The  political  organization  of  a  country  under  the  feudal 
system  consisted  in  the  bulk  of  the  land  being  divided  into 
states  called  fiefs,  which  were  held  by  their  owners  on  the 
condition  that  they  should,  when  called  on,  perform  certain 
military  duties  to  their  superiors  or  pay  them  fees  in  grain, 
wines,  cattle,  etc.,  and  in  default  of  such  service  or  payment, 
the  land  could  be  reclaimed.  The  superior  lord  might  be 
the  king  of  the  realm,  or  some  nobleman  that  held  a  feudal 
tenure  from  the  king,  and  who  in  turn  created  fiefs  by  and 
under  his  own  personal  rule. 

An  important  detail  of  the  old  feudal  law  was  the  fact  that 
the. king  or  superior  lord,  from  whence  comes  the  modern 
term  landlord,  was  entitled  to  the  fealty  of  his  own  tenants, 
but  not  to  that  of  his  subordinate  tenants,  every  man  looking 
for  rule  and  discipline  only  to  his  own  immediate  lord  and 
master.  It  therefore  frequently  happened  that  one  of  these 
noblemen  would  build  up  a  community  so  powerful  as  to 
feel  practically  independent  of  his  king,  and  therefore 
refuse  to  render  to  his  superior  such  military  service  as 
was  demanded.  The  result  of  this  was  inevitably  the 
same — war  between  the  king  and  his  subject.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  subject  remained  loyal  to  his  king,  he  was  likely 
to  depend  on  the  royal  influence  and  encroach  somewhat 
upon  the  fief  of  some  one  of  his  feudal  neighbors.  This 
would  bring  about  the  same  result — war  between  two  feudal 
barons.  And  even  if  he  remained  within  his  own  territory 
and  was  true  to  his  sovereign,  the  prosperity  of  his  fief  or 
his  influence  with  the  royal  court  was  sure  to  excite  the 
jealousy  of  some  one  of  the  surrounding  nobles  and  bring 
about  war. 

It  would  thus  appear  that  the  feudal  barons  were  at  war 
with  one  another  a  large  part  of  the  time,  and  these  frequent 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


123 


wars  required  that  the  medieval  castle  should  be  a  military 
post  from  necessity  and  a  domestic  household  for  convenience. 
During  the  war  the  castle  was  the  stronghold  of  the  lord  and 
his  retainers,  and  during  peace  it  was  a  house  of  entertain- 
ment for  his  guests  and  vassals. 

151.  Castle  of  Coucy. — In  Fig.  122  is  shown  a  plan  of 
the  castle  of  Coucy,  near  Laon,  France,  the  irregular  outline 
of  which  is  due  to  the  fact  that  military  engineering  required 
that  these  structures  should  conform  as  nearly  as  possible  to 
the  top  of  the  hill,  on 
which  they  were  usually 
built,  thereby  rendering 
it  impracticable  to  storm 
the  fortress  from  more 
than  one  side  —  that  on 
which  the  entrance  was 
located. 

A  large  tower,  or  keep 
—  in  the  French  castles 
called  the  donjon  — 
guarded  this  main  en- 
trance and  at  the  same 
time  served  as  a  strong- 
hold and  point  of  last 
resort  in  case  other  por- 
tions of  the  castle  shotild 
fall  into  the  hands  of 
invaders.  The  donjon 
of  Coucy  was  180  feet  in 
height  and  108  feet  in 
diameter,  and  the  walls 
were  34  feet  thick  at  the 
base.  The  uppermost  of  its  three  stories  was  the  largest,  as 
the  walls  were  thinner  at  the  top,  and  1,500  men  could  be 
here  assembled  in  a  circular  room  and  receive  their  instruc- 
tions for  the  military  routine  of  the  day.  In  the  middle 
story  was  the  family  apartment  for  use  during  siege,  and  in 


124  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

the  basement  were  storerooms  for  sufficient  provisions  to 
last  1,000  men  over  a  year. 

The  keep  was  surrounded  on  the  outside  by  a  moat,  or 
water-filled  ditch,  shown  at  #,  beyond  which  was  a  large 
enclosure  shown  at  A,,  called  the  outer  bailey.  This  was  a 
large  piece  of  cultivated  land  and  contained  the  chapel  r  and 
the  stables  s.  The  interior  courtyard  d  was  called  the  inner 
bailey  and  was  the  only  outdoor  area  open  to  the  garrison  in 
time  of  siege. 

These  points  are  of  interest,  as  from  them  are  developed 
many  details  that  are  characteristic  of  the  modern  house  in 
plan,  while  other  details  of  more  decorative  value  had  their 
origin  in  devices  originally  invented  for  purely  military 
purposes. 

152.  In  Fig.  123  is  shown  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  castle 
of  Coucy  and  the  surrounding  country.  Around  the  top  of 
each  of  its  five  towers  will  be  observed  small  projections  that 
carry  an  enclosed  gallery.  The  spaces  between  these  pro- 
jections, or  corbels,  as  they  were  called,  were  open  through 
the  floor  of  this  overhanging  gallery,  and,  in  time  of  siege, 
when  the  walls  of  the  castle  were  surrounded  by  sappers 
and  miners  endeavoring  to  disintegrate  the  stonework  and 
gain  access  to  the  interior,  deadly  missiles  were  shot  straight 
down  from  the  floor  of  the  gallery,  or  quantities  of  boiling 
oil  or  molten  lead  were  used  to  make  the  base  of  the  walls  as 
unapproachable  as  possible. 

The  windows  in  the  castle  all  opened  on  the  inner  bailey, 
no  openings  being  permitted  toward  the  outside  except 
small  loopholes  of  sufficient  size  only  to  shoot  an  arrow 
through.  The  tops  of  the  individual  walls  enclosing  the 
inner  bailey  were  notched,  and  the  rectangular  sections  of 
wall  between  the  notches — called  battlements — each  con- 
tained a  large  loophole,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  perspective 
view  at  j.  Behind  these  battlements  was  a  platform  on 
which  archers  could  stand  and  shoot  at  an  invading  force, 
while  a  similar  treatment  of  the  top  of  the  walls  around  the 
outer  bailey  enabled  the  besieged  to  defend  the  outer  bailey 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


125 


against  the  besiegers  before  finally  retiring  within  the  castle 
walls  for  safety. 

All  these  details  were  altered  from  time  to  time,  as  civil- 
ization advanced,   and  when   the   invention  of  gunpowder 


FIG.  123. 


rendered  the  castellar  system  of  defense  obsolete,  the 
corbels,  battlements,  and  other  details  of  feudal  military 
origin  were  still  retained  a.s  ornamental  features  in  many  <>£ 
the  buildings  developed  from  the  castellar  plan. 


126  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

153.  Mode  of  Living  in  Ancient  Castles. — Regard- 
ing domestic   life   within  these    castle  walls,   it    is  well    to 
remember  that,   previous  to  the  fourteenth  century,   there 
was  not  much  subdivision  in  the  household  apartments  even 
of  royalty,  the  king  and  queen  and  the  servants  and  retainers 
all  usually  occupying  one  room,  known  as  the  great  hall.    This 
great  hall  is  shown  in  the  plan  at  //,  and  was  to  the  domestic 
part  of  the  household  what  the  donjon  was  to  the  military — 
the  main  apartment  wherein  all  household  duties  were  per- 
formed.     Here  the  lord  sat  at  his  meals  with  his  family,  his 
guests,  and  his  retainers;  here  he  transacted  all  business  of 
the  day,  both  financial  and  domestic ;  and  here  in  the  earliest 
times  he  slept  at  night  on  a  rough  couch  at  one  end. 

By  degrees,  society  began  to  improve  and  become  more 
refined,  and  the  constant  daily  association  writh  servants  and 
soldiers  becoming  undesirable,  the  great  hall  was  divided 
into  two  apartments,  one  of  which  \vas  known  as  the  with- 
drawing room,  where  the  lord  and  his  family  could  retire 
after  meals,  but  the  hall  was  still  retained  for  business  and 
dining  purposes.  However,  a  further  subdivision  provided 
another  room  for  the  transaction  of  business,  which  was  still 
called  the  hall,  but  in  distinction  the  remaining  portion  was 
called  the  dining  hall.  These  three  rooms — the  hall,  the 
dining  hall,  and  the  withdrawing  room — were  the  principal 
apartments  in  the  house  or  castle,  and,  consequently,  the  sep- 
arate sleeping  apartments,  which  advanced  ideas  demanded, 
were  crowded  into  any  out-of-the-way  corner  that  circum- 
stances afforded.  For  this  reason,  these  sleeping  rooms 
were  often  dark,  cheerless  apartments,  and  were  designated 
by  the  term  chamber — a  \vord  derived  from  the  Latin,  mean- 
ing a  dark  vault — and  finally,  when  the  bedstead  was  intro- 
duced as  an  article  of  household  furniture,  the  sleeping 
rooms  were  called  bed  chambers,  to  designate  them  from 
other  rooms  in  the  castle  of  similar  character  but  not  for 
sleeping  purposes. 

154.  Heating  of   Ancient  Castles.  —  In   the   earliest 
days,  the  castle  was  heated  by  an  immense  fire-grate  located 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  127 

in  the  center  of  the  room,  the  smoke  from  whieh  passed 
through  openings  in  the  roof  called  louvers.  Subsequently, 
this  grate  was  removed  from  the  center  to  the  side  wall,  and 
the  louver  was  replaced  by  a  chimney  stack.  This  neces- 
sitated a  separate  chimney  for  each  room,  and  is  responsible 
for  the  fact  that  nearly  every  French  chateau  built  in  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  bristles  with  beautifully 
designed  chimney  stacks  above  the  roof,  and  nearly  every 
room  in  the  French  chateau  of  the  Renaissance  period  pos- 
sesses a  fireplace  and  a  distinctively  designed  mantel. 

155.  Heraldry. — Another  point  of  this  feudal  system 
is  the  subject  of  heraldry,  which  is  of  vast  importance  in 
its  relation  to  historic  ornament,  inasmuch  as  it  is  based 
entirely  on  that  important  characteristic  of  all  ornament, 
namely,  symbolism.  It  is  doubtless  true  that  armorial  bear- 
ings were  not  in  much  general  use  until  the  twelfth  century, 
when  they  were  brought  into  prominence  by  the  crusades — a 
term  given  to  those  wars  waged  by  the  Christians  of  Western 
Europe  against  the  Mohammedans  around  Jemsalem  for  the 
purpose  of  rescuing  the  Holy  Sepulcher  from  the  hands  of 
infidels. 

The  purpose  of  heraldic  devices  was  to  designate  one  per- 
son from  another,  as  surnames  did  not  exist  in  those  days; 
and  though  the  painted  device  by  which  the  savage  sets 
forth  his  personality  may  be  considered  as  heraldic  as  the 
device  borne  on  the  shield  of  a  soldier,  it  is  with  the  latter 
class  that. we  have  to  do  in  ornamental  design. 

We  have  seen  in  Egyptian  art  evidences  of  heraldry, 
inasmuch  as  the  two  serpents  flanking  the  sun  disk  of  the 
winged  globe  are  symbols  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  and, 
therefore,  heraldic.  But  with  the  twelfth  century,  we  arrive 
at  a  system  of  heraldry  whereby  the  heraldic  device  was 
passed  down  from  generation  to  generation,  in  the  same 
manner  that  the  family  name  is  transmitted  at  the  present 
day.  A  heraldic  device  would  be  transmitted  from  father 
to  son,  on  the  death  of  the  former,  with  few  alterations,  so 
that  in  our  study  of  the  history  of  subsequent  styles,  we  can 


128  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

locate  and  date  many  details  by  our  familiarity  with  the 
insignia  associated  with  certain  royal  families. 

156.  Tlie  Fleur-de-lis. — The  fleur-de-lis  has  ever  been 
emblematic  of  France,  because  Hugh  Capet,  the  first  French 
king,  carried  it  on  his  shield  as  the  insignia  of  his  family, 
and  subsequent  rulers  used  this  same  emblem  as  an  indica- 
tion of  royalty,  while  they  coupled  with  it  some  other  device 
to  more  clearly  establish  their  own  personality.  In  subse- 
quent periods,  as  we  shall  see,  the  initial  letter  was  fre- 
quently used  by  royalty  on  works  of  art  erected  by  them 
during  the  period  of  their  reign ;  but  this  is  not  of  so  much 
importance  to  us  as  the  heraldic  devices,  as  several  sover- 
eigns of  the  same  name  ruled  many  years  apart.  The 
importance  of  these  heraldic  devices  cannot  be  overestimated, 
as  will  be  pointed  out  when  we  study  the  ornament  of  the 
subsequent  periods  in  the  Renaissance. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 

(PART  3.) 


RENAISSANCE   ART. 


INTRODUCTION. 

1.  Origin. — Although  the  medieval  style  of  art  and 
architecture  prevailed  throughout  all  Europe  for  at  least  six 
centuries,  it  is  still  a  difficult  matter  to  draw  a  line  at  certain 
dates  when  the  influence  of  the  ancient  classic  art  utterly 
ceased  and  the  revival  of  that  classic  art  after  the  Medieval 
period  took  place.  In  fact,  if  the  two  subjects  were  studied 
separately  and  independently,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  traces 
of  revival  of  classic  art  could  be  discovered  even  before  the 
classic  style  itself  had  become  extinct. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  Italy,  in  the  extreme 
southern  part  of  Europe,  was  the  seat  of  the  original  Roman 
government,  and  the  country  wherein  the  classic  style  devel- 
oped to  its  greatest  voluptuousness.  The  Roman  people 
spread  all  over  civilized  Europe  and  established  their  monu- 
ments everywhere,  but  no  place  so  profusely  as  in  Italy 
itself. 

After  the  conquest  of  Rome  by  the  barbarous  hordes  from 
the  North,  the  Latin-speaking  people  were  largely  confined 
to  the  Italian  peninsula,  and  though  a  new  style  of  architec- 
ture was  developed  by  the%  conquering  race — a  style  since 
derisively  termed  Gothic  by  the  artists  of  the  Renaissance 

§5 

For  notice  of  the  copyright,  see  page  immediately  following  the  title  page. 


t>  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §5 

period — the  original  Romans  at  home  still  endeavored  to 
adhere  to  their  ancient  traditions  and  styles  of  art.  If  this 
point  is  thoroughly  understood,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in 
tracing  the  progress  of  Renaissance  art  from  Italy  through- 
out Europe.  We  have  seen  that  the  farther  north  we  go 
from  the  site  of  the  Roman  Empire,  the  purer  was  the  style 
of  the  Gothic  art  that  prevailed,  inasmuch  as  it  was  less 
hampered  by  the  tradition  of  classic  art. 

2.  Revival  of  Classic  Style. — Now,  when  it  comes  to 
a  revival  of  the  classic  style,  it  is  not  strange  that  that  revi- 
val should  take  place  first  in  Italy,  where  the  Gothic  style 
never  secured  a  prominent  foothold,  that  the  revival  should 
spread  from  Italy  to  France — a  people  made  up  largely  of 
Latin  extraction- — and   that,   lastly,   it  should  extend  from 
France  to  England,  but  in  a  very  imperfect  form,  as  the 
English  people  were  not  Latins  and  had  no  sympathy  with, 
nor  tie  to,  the  original  Latin  style.      Bear  in  mind  also  that 
the  Celtic  ornament,  of  which  we  have  studied,  originated 
among  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  the  British  Isles  and  natu- 
rally influenced  any  importation  from  a  strictly  foreign  coun- 
try, as  was  Italy. 

3.  Scope     of     Renaissance     Period.  — In     describing 
Renaissance  art,    we    will   commence   at  the  period   of   its 
infancy  and  continue  under 'this  heading  clown  to  the  present 
day,  inasmuch  as  there  has  been  no  new  style  evolved  and 
no  revival  of  any  other  style  that  need  break  this  term  of 
continuity.     Moreover,  it  will  not  be  inadvisable  for  us  to 
set  a  period  or  character  of  the  Renaissance  style  that  theo- 
retically may  bi  considered  the  best,  and,  in  doing  this,  we 
must  consider  all  the  influences  that  are  brought  to  bear. 

4.  Intention   of  Renaissance  Artists. — -The  effort  of 
the  Renaissance  artists  was  not  to  invent  a  new  style,  nor  to 
bring  about  through  a  transition  a  development  based  on 
classic  lines,   but  to  deliberately  copy  the   monuments   of 
pagan  Rome  and  Greece  and  use  these  heathen  forms,  no 
matter  how  inappropriate  or  illy  suited  for  the  purpose  of 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  3 

modern  Christian  art.  They  were  different  from  anything 
they  had  ever  seen  or  conceived;  they  were  the  products  of 
an  age  cf  wonderful  art  and  literary  advancement,  and,  in 
the  eyes  of  the  Renaissance  artists,  were  accepted  as  supe- 
rior to  anything  they  could  themselves  devise. 

5.  Kenaissance  Art  In  Italy. — The  style  of   Renais- 
sance we  find  in  Italy,  where  Gothic  art  had  its  slightest 
influence,  naturally  adheres  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  old 
Roman  forms,  for  there  they  had  the  old  Roman  buildings, 
many  of  them  still  intact,  that  could  be  copied  line  for  line. 

The  invasion  of  Italy  by  Charles  VIII  of  France,  toward 
the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  brought  into  the  latter 
country  examples  of  this  revived  Italian  art  that  were  much 
admired  by  the  French  public,  and  the  revival  of  classic  art 
was  immediately  felt  throughout  France.  Devoid  of  actual 
buildings  from  which  they  could  study  their  designs,  the 
French  artists  were  compelled  to  go  to  Italy  and  study,  and 
French  kings  imported  Italian  artists  to  do  work  in  and 
around  Paris.  Either  experiment  was  bound  to  produce  an 
altered  style. 

6.  Introduction  Into  France. — The  French  artist  had 
been  working  in  the  Gothic  style,  and  he  studied  the  Italian 
monuments  with  an  idea  of  medieval   construction   in  his 
mind.     The  Italian  artist  came  to  France  possibly  with  a 
clearer  idea  of  classic  art,  but  was  hampered  in  his  execution 
by  the  necessity  of  employing  workmen  that  had  cut  stone 
in  no  other  style  than  that  which  had  prevailed  during  the 
six  centuries  of  the  Middle  Ages.    An  even  compromise  can 
therefore  be  considered  to  nave  taken   place  between  the 
perfect  construction  of  the  Gothic  style  and  the  perfect  pro- 
portion of  the  classic  art. 

7.  Introduction  Into  England. — The  introduction  of 
Renaissance  into  England,  however,  was  far  different.    True, 
her  artists  studied  the  styles  under  great  Italian  masters  at 
Rome,  but  they,  too,  had  to  compete  with  designers  in  the 
local   school,  where  Gothic   art  had   secured    its   strongest 


4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

foothold.  Germany  and  Holland  before  this  had  adopted  the 
Renaissance  style  from  France,  and  the  systematic  patience 
of  the  Germans  and  the  phlegmatic  immobility  of  the  Hol- 
lander are  well  woven  into  the  style  of  classic  art  they 
reproduced.  When  these  perverted  ideas  were  transmitted 
to  England,  it  is  easily  understood  that  they  contained  few 
details  that  could  be  considered  purely  classic.  By  a  suc- 
cessive alteration  through  several  countries,  they  could  be 
with  difficulty  identified  with  their  original  type. 

8.  Purity  of  French  Style. — We  may  therefore  con- 
sider that  in  France  we  find  the  best  examples  of  a  practical 
adaptation  of  the  ancient  classic  ornament  to  modern  condi- 
tions and  purposes,  while  in  Italy  we  find  a  Renaissance  of 
classic  art  that  adheres  more  closely  to  the  classic  style,  but 
can  hardly  be  considered  even  a  new  departure.  In  Eng- 
land, however,  the  style  that  was  developed  in  the  Renais- 
sance period  is  not  classic  at  all,  except  in  its  derivation,  and 
there,  after  repeated  endeavors  to  apply  the  inappropriate 
forms  to  the  modern  purposes,  the  style  was  abandoned  and 
an  endeavor  made  to  revive  that  of  the  Medieval  period. 


ITALIAN   RENAISSANCE. 

J).  Origin. — Fragments  of  exquisite  beauty  in  stone, 
bronze,  and  marble  were  hardly  covered  over  by  the  top  of 
the  soil  in  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  buildings  of  Rome,  and 
these  buildings  therefore  became  quarries  from  which  stone 
was  easily  obtained  and  recut  to  be  used  for  tombs  and  other 
buildings  wherein  the  style  of  art  for  which  they  were  origi- 
nally used  played  no  part.  This  accounts  largely  for  the 
fact  that  Gothic  art  secured  so  little  foothold  in  Italy  and 
remained  for  so  short  a  time. 

The  pointed  arch  was  introduced  in  the  northern  part 
of  Italy  early  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  this  might  be 
considered  the  planting  of  the  seed  of  Gothic  art  in  this 
territory ;  but  almost  at  the  same  time  there  was  a  protest 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  5 

made  in  favor  of  the  ancients  and  the  arts  as  being  supe- 
rior to  anything  the  barbarous  hordes  from  the  North  could 
produce. 

1C.  Art  and  [Literature. — The  great  poet  Dante, 
though  an  ardent  Christian,  was  a  profound  student  of 
classic  learning  as  well  as  a  strong  advocate  of  pagan  art. 
The  celebrated  authors  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio  were  intimate 
friends  and  spent  their  lives,  not,  as  many  people  supposed, 
in  writing  Italian  poetry  and  prose,  but  in  laboring  almost 
incessantly  in  the  preservation  and  restoration  to  the  rest  of 
the  world  of  the  long-lost  text  of  the  Roman  and  Greek 
authors.  It  was  Boccaccio  that  first  gave  to  Italy  a  lucid 
account  of  Greek  mythology  and  that  first  instituted  a  school 
for  the  study  of  the  Greek  language  at  Florence,  and  these 
efforts  at  a  revival  of  learning  were  seconded  and  backed  by 
a  large  number  of  notables  who  could  not  have  failed  to 
make  it  a  success. 

11.  Invention  of  Printing:  ami  Its  TCfFeots. — Now, 
understand  that  at  the  time  when  the  labors  of  all  these 
men  had  accumulated  in  their  libraries — public  and  private 
— all  that  could  be  recovered  of  classic  learning,  all  that 
could  be  gathered  from  the  earliest  scrolls  of  tlrj  Greeks,  all 
the  information  concerning  art  that  remained  from  the 
wreckage  of  old  Rome,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  art  of  printing  was  introduced  into  Italy  and 
the  learning  of  the  ancients  became  spread  among  the  people 
of  all  Europe. 

The  invention  of  printing  and  the  printing  press  is  there- 
fore responsible  for  the  development  of  the  Renaissance 
style.  Louis  XI  of  France  sent  Nicholas  Jenson  into  Italy 
to  learn  "the  new  art  by  which  books  were  made."  This 
learned  man  was  no  less  a  competent  editor  than  he  was  a 
zealous  printer,  and  from  about  the  year  1400  he  gave  to  the 
world  in  rapid  succession  many  editions  of  Greek  and  Latin 
classics  and  a  history  of  ancient  art  profusely  illustrated  with 
engravings  on  wood. 


6  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

12.  Publication  of  Vitruvius. — Through  these  illus- 
trations, which  display  a  study  on   the  part  of  the  artist  of 
ancient  art,  types  of  ornament  geometrically  opposed  to  those 
of  the  Middle  Ages  were  disseminated  over  the  continent  of 
Europe;  and,  in  1511,  the  publication  of  the  architecture  of 
Yitruvius  at  Venice,  with  illustrations  of  the  classic  orders 
of  architecture,  set  a  final  seal  upon  the  fate  of  matters  in 
art  and  afforded  the  means  of  spreading  throughout  other 
countries  those  details  of  ancient  design  that  had  so  engaged 
the  art  public  of  Italy. 

13.  Italian  Aversion  to   Gothic   Forms. — However, 
before  those  laborers  that  were  endeavoring  to  bring  classic 
art  and  literature  to  the*  front  had  succeeded  in  getting  the 
least  sign  of  encouragement,  it  was  apparent  that  the  Italians 
did  not  take  kindly  to  Gothic  forms.     The  acanthus  leaf  was 
typical  of  Italian  art,  and  the  foliated  capitals  of  the  Gothic 
school  had  to  accept  this  form  of  vegetation. 

In  its  earliest  stage,  Renaissance  art  in  Italy  was  really  a 
revival  of  classic  principles,  and  it  was  not  until  the  middle 
of  the  fifteenth  century  that  it  could  be  considered  an  actual 
revival  of  style. 

14.  Iloman  Influences. — At  Rome  the  great  wealth  of 
the  Italian  princes  and  the  great  ecclesiastical  works  under- 
taken by  successive  pontiffs  of  the  Church  attracted  to  that 
city  the  highest  procurable  ability  in  the  art  world,  and  it  is 
for  that  reason  that  we  can  still  find  in  Rome,  in  the  various 
palaces  and  churches,  the  most  exquisite  fragments  of  deco- 
rative sculpture  in  detail. 

15.  Doiiatello. — One  of  the  most  interesting  qualities 
of  this  style  of  ornament  is  the  skill  with  which  those  by 
whom  it  has  been  wrought  have  availed    themselves  of  a 
variation  of  light  and  shade  by  the  treatment  of  the  surfaces 
on  which  the  ornament  is  raised.     The  refined  appreciation 
of  the  delicate  shades  of  relief  in  sculptured  ornament  was 
carried  out  with  the  greatest  perfection  by  Donatello,  an 
artist  whose  authority  on  matters  of   art  was  held  in  the 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  7 

highest  esteem  by  the  people  of  Florence,  and  whose  example 
was  followed  by  all  classes  of  artists. 

He  was  the  first  to  practice  the  true  basso  rilievo^  by 
which  the  effect  of  projection  and  of  rounded  molding 
is  obtained  within  what  would  appear  to  be  impracti- 
cable limits  of  relief;  that  is  to  say,  in  modeling  his  orna- 
ment on  surface,  it  was  raised  but  slightly  above  the  surface 
but  was  treated  in  its  carving  so  as  to  appear  in  high 
relief. 

Donatello  then  combined  this  style  of  work  with  mezzo 
rilievo  and  alto  rilievo,  the  former  being  a  half  relief,  and  the 
latter  being  a  sunken  ornament  below  the  surface  on  which  it 
was  executed.  This  combination  maintained  a  division  of  the 
subject  of  his  design  into  several  planes.  Donatello  enriched 
many  of  his  ornaments  with  elements  derived  from  the  art 
of  painting. 

16.  Plane  System. — At  the  zenith  of  its  perfection,  this 
system  of  regular  arrangement  of  ornament  in  planes  was  so 
ingeniously  managed  in  position  of  light  and  shade    that, 
when  viewed  from  a  distance,  the  relief  presented  only  cer- 
tain points  symmetrically  disposed  with  some  dominating 
geometrical  figure.     An  approach  of  a  few  yards  served  to 
bring  to  the  eye  lines  and  details  connecting  the  points  of 
greatest  importance,  and  a  still  nearer  approach  revealed  the 
leafage  of  the  delicate  tendrils  that  were  required  to  convey 
a  tangible  idea  of  the  type  of  nature  selected  for  the  conven- 
tionalized design.     And  beyond  this,  no  inspection  could  be 
too  close  a  test  of  the  artist's  perfect  appreciation  of  the 
refinements  of  surface  texture. 

17.  Characteristics. — In  the  hands  of  less  profoundly 

impressed  artists  than  Donatello — those  possessing  an  inferior 
sense  of  the  proper  limit  of  convention  in  sculpture — the 
introduction  of  pictorial  elements  in  the  bas-  relief  design  soon 
degenerated  into  realism  and  confusion.  Great  as  was  the 
skill  of  Ghiberti,  the  effect  of  many  of  his  most  graceful 
compositions  was  marred  by  the  introduction  of  perspective 


8  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

effect  and  accessories  too  servilely  copied  from  nature.  In 
many  of  the  ornaments  of  sculpture,  this  fault  is  exagger- 
ated until  the  dignity  of  the  design  is  lost  in  the  frivolity  of 
the  detail.  These  monuments,  decked  with  huge  garlands 
of  flowers,  hung  with  heavy  cartouches  and  tablets,  and  fan- 
cifully overgrown  with  foliage,  appeared  more  as  examples 
of  the  artisan's  skill  than  works  of  art  commemorative  of  the 
date  or  dedicated  to  sacred  purposes. 

This  is  somewhat  illustrated  in  Fig.  1,  which  is  a  part  of  a 
cornice  taken  from  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  or  Town  Hall,  of 
Florence,  Italy.  This  also  illustrates  the  minutia  of  detail 


FIG.  l. 


with  which  this  style  of  ornament  abounded.  Along  the 
frieze  are  heavy  garlands  of  flowers,  the  design  of  which 
includes  also  fruit  and  grain,  while  at  the  points  between 
which  they  are  stretched  are  hung  shield-shaped  cartouches 
bearing  devices  of  a  more  symbolic  character.  The  fleur- 
de-lis,  emblematic  of  certain  royal  families,  and  the  crossed 
keys  of  St.  Peter  are  here  seen,  and  it  would  appear  that  one 
ot  them  must  be  strangely  out  of  place  in  the  frieze  of  a 
town  hall.  The  other  ornaments  on  the  moldings,  though 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


elaborately  carved,  are  less  out  of  place  and  are  characteristic 
of  the  style  and  period. 

18.     Frivolity   and    Incongruity   of   Designs. — The 

panels  in  the  elaborately  carved  seat  in  Fig.  2  show  to  what 
extreme  and  frivolity  ornament  of  this  character  can  be  car- 


TB55 


ried.  Here,  as  the  settee  in  St.  Peter's  Church,  Perugia,  we 
have  a  design  not  only  proportioned  according  to  the  pagan 
rules  and  ideas,  but  elaborately  interspersed  with  grotesque 


10  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

figures,  comic  masks,  griffins,  bucrania,  flowers,  and  fruit, 
not  one  of  which  would  appear  to  be  particularly  identified 
with  any  detail  of  the  Christian  faith. 

Many  of  the  designs  of  this  period  are  strangely  incongru- 
ous with  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  called  into  existence. 
Tragic  and  comic  masks,  musical  instruments,  antique  altars, 
tripods,  hybrid  marine  monsters,  and  chimeras  do  not  har- 
monize well  with  monuments  reared  in  consecrated  edifices 
or  dedicated  to  religious  rites.  However,  this  fault  of  the 
confusion  of  details  cannot  be  laid  entirely  upon  the  shoul- 
ders of  the  artists  of  the  Renaissance  period,  as  their  works 
may  be  considered  simply  as  a  reflection  of  the  taste  and  dom- 
inant spirit  of  the  age;  and  this  revival  of  mythological 
symbolism  was  a  protest  against  the  hampering  trammels  of 
esthetic  tradition  erected  into  dogmatism  by  the  rulers  of  the 
East,  and  endorsed  by  the  Church  during  those  centuries 
when  its  ascendency  over  an  ignorant  and  turbulent  popula- 
tion was  at  its  greatest  height.  The  minds  of  even  the  most 
religious  men  were  thoroughly  imbued  with  such  inappro- 
priate and  incongruous  associations  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

1 9.  Value  to  the  Designer. — To  the  designer,  the  study 
of  this  period  in  ornament  is  of  the  greatest  value,  as  in  no 
style  has  ornament  ever  been  better  spaced  or  arranged  to 
contrast  more  agreeably  with  the  direction  of  the  adjacent 
architectural  lines  by  which  it  was  bound  and  always  kept  in 
subordination.     Rarely  do  we  find  an  ornament  placed  in  a 
horizontal  position  that  is  more  suitable  to  a  vertical  one,  or 
vice  versa;  and  rarely  are  the  proportions  of  the  ornaments 
and  moldings,  or  the  stiles  and  rails  by  which  regularity  and 
symmetry   are  given  to   the   whole,    at  variance  with  one 
another. 

20.  Propriety    of  Subject.  —  In    Fig.    3    is    shown   a 
column  from  the  inner  court  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  with 
its  stucco  decorations  in  the  style  of  the  Renaissance  of  this 
period.     Observe  that  the  arabesques  fit  perfectly  the  rect- 
angular panels  on    the   sides  of    the  octagon  column,   and 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


11 


that  the  ornament  is  well  spaced,  appearing  not  crowded  or 
excessive,  but  flowing  naturally  and  preserving  a  proper 
relation  between  the  plain  surfaces  and  the  richly  orna- 
mented ones.  None  of  this  ornament  could  be  said  to  have 


FIG.  8. 


been  better  suited  to  a  horizontal  position,  nor  can  it  be 
stated  that  the  relative  proportions  of  the  details  of  the 
ornament  are  such  as  to  make  one  portion  of  it  any  more 
prominent  or  excessive  than  another. 

In  Fig.  4  is  shown  another  column  from  the  same  build- 
ing, ornamented  on  an  entirely  different  system,  although 
included  in  the  group  with  the  one  of  the  previous  example. 
Here  the  flowing  grape  vine  winds  spirally  around  the  col- 
umn, and  the  leaves  and  fruit  are  so  disposed  as  to  set  off 
clearly  the  details  and  at  the  same  time  preserve  that  space 
relation  that  is  always  characteristic  of  good  ornament. 


12 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


The  capitals  of  these  columns,  it  will  be  observed,  are 
almost  identical  in  design,  although  one  of  them  crowns  an 

octagonal  column  and  the  other 
a  round  shaft. 

*£].  In  Fig.  5  is  shown  one 
end  of  a  sarcophagus  in  the 
tomb  of  Marsuppini,  at  Flor- 
ence, designed  by  a  pupil  and 
follower  of  Donatello.  This  is 
considered  one  of  the  finest 
examples  of  Italian-Renaissance 
sculpture.  The  treatment  of 
the  leaves  and  foliage,  and  the 
proportioning  of  the  ornament 
to  the  surface,  with  the  digni- 
fied simplicity  of  the  inscription 
and  frame,  make  it  deserving 
of  close  attention  and  considera- 
tion of  the  method  by  which 
its  decoration  is  handled.  The 
relation  here  of  plain  surface 
and  running  ornament  is  very 
happily  proportioned,  avoiding 
so  successfully  the  appearance  of  excess,  so  characteristic 
of  most  Renaissance  design  and  at  the  same  time  satisfying 
the  mind  as  to  its  sufficiency. 

22.  Scrollwork. — In  Fig.  0  is  shown  the  capital  of  a 
pilaster  from  the  church  of  San  Spirito,  in  Florence.  The 
treatment  of  the  acanthus  leaf  here,  it  will  be  observed,  is 
very  similar  to  its  treatment  on  the  Roman-Corinthian  cap- 
ital, very  few  alterations  having  been  made  in  the  type. 
The  introduction  of  the  oak  leaf  in  an  acanthusized  form 
shows  a  step  in  progression,  as  does  the  introduction  of  the 
acorn  accompanying  the  leaf.  The  peculiar  form  of  S  scroll 
in  the  center  of  the  capital,  each  side  and  below  the  acorns, 
is  characteristic  of  the  Renaissance,  and  has  its  origip 


FIG.  4. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


14 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


undoubtedly  in  that  irrepressible  tendency  of  Roman  orna- 
ment to  end  its  scrolls  each  time  in  a  flower.  The  propor- 
tioning of  the  ornament  to  the  surface  in  this  case,  however, 
is  much  more  moderate  and  refined  than  in  the  Roman- 
Corinthian  capital,  and  though  copied  after  the  classic 
model,  this  is  certainly  an  improvement  on  it. 

23.  Foliated  Terminations.  —  In  Fig.  7  is  shown  a 
portion  of  a  cornice  supported  on  pilasters  around  the  door- 
way in  the  same  church.  The  treatment  of  the  frieze  shows 
its  origin  in  Roman  ornament,  but  the  introduction  of  the 


FIG.  7. 


human  figure  and  birds  with  foliated  terminations  reminds 
us  again  of  the  innovations  made  by  the  Renaissance  artists. 
Observe  that  all  surface  is  here  ornamented,  that  every 
molding  is  cut  to  break  up  an  appearance  of  continuous  line 
and  cast  an  irregular  shadow,  and  that  the  surfaces,  such  as 
the  top  of  the  pilaster  and  its  capital  and  the  panels  in  the 
frieze  just  referred  to,  all  have  their  decorations  properly 
proportioned  and  in  keeping  with  the  position  they  occupy. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


15 


In  Fig.  8  is  shown  another  cornice  from  the  same  church, 
the  design  of  which  follows  more  closely  the  ancient  classic 
model.  The  ornament  on  the  frieze  is  carved  in  high  relief 
and  does  not  possess  that  easy  flowing  feeling  that  is  seen 
in  the  previous  example.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 


FIG.  8. 

moldings  on  the  pilaster  that  supports  the  cornice,  and  of 
the  capital  of  this  pilaster.  The  ornament  is  too  thick  and 
there  is  not  sufficient  blank  surface  to  rest  the  eye  from  this 
abundance  of  detail,  thereby  giving  the  whole  design  a  feel- 
ing of  unrest  that  was  more  characteristic  of  the  extravagant 


16 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


Corinthian  order  of  the  Romans  than  the  more  refined  hand- 
lings of  Italian  art. 

In  Fig.  9  is  shown  a  bracket  that  forms  a  detail  of  the 
pulpit  in  the  church  of  St.  Croce,  in  Florence,  the  treatment 
of  the  decoration  of  which  is  well  worthy  of  study.  The 
ornamen*  is  not  excessive  and  well  fills  the  surface  where  it  is 


placed,  and  the  leafwork  is  carved  in  low  relief  and  does  not 
possess  that  excessive  surface  molding  that  so  materially 
detracts  from  some  of  the  work  of  the  later  Renaissance. 

24.  Examples  of  Venetian  Renaissance.— In  Fig.  10 
is  a  bracket  from  the  Ducal  Palace  at  Venice,  and  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  style  of  the  Venetian  Renaissance.  The 
scrollwork  and  treatment  of  the  foliage  in  this  bracket  is 
particularly  happy,  and  illustrates,  more  clearly  than  any 
example  we  have  had,  the  obedience  to  those  laws  of  nature 
that  must  be  observed  in  all  good  ornament :  radiation  from 
the  parent  stem,  tangential  curvature  of  lines,  and  distribu- 
tion of  areas.  The  latter  rule  is  particularly  well  shown  in 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


17 


this  by  the  gradual  diminution  in  surface  occupied  by  the 
running  ornament  as  it  extends  into  the  extremities  of  the 
triangular  panel.  The  scrollwork  under  the  bracket  is  not 
so  artistically  formed  or  well  proportioned,  but  errors  here 
are  amply  balanced  by  the  good  points  of  the  scroll. 

In  Fig.  11  is  shown  a  panel  from  a  large  candelabrum 
that  gives  a  very  clear  idea  of  the  treatment  of  Venetian 
arabesques.  The  panel  is  symmetrical  on  each  side  of  a 
center  line,  carved  in  high  relief  in  stone,  and  is  treated  in 


Fir,.  10. 

a  manner  that  makes  the  ornament  somewhat  monotonous 
in  itself  but  well  proportioned  to  the  surface  it  is  intended 
to  cover,  with  enough  blank  space  to  prevent  tiresomeness 
in  its  study. 

25.  Ingenuity  of  Ileimissam-o  J>esijrm»r. — Fig.  12  is 
a  panel  under  the  balustrade  of  the  stairs  in  the  cathedral  at 
Sienna.  This  illustrates  to  a  remarkable  degree  the  inge- 
nuity and  fertility  of  mind  possessed  by  the  early  Renais- 
sance designer  and  sculptor.  Here  we  have,  forming  the 


18 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


running-  border  around  a  trapezoidal  panel,  the  guilloche 
ornament  so  characteristic  of  classic  art,  and  the  running 
arabesque  identified  with  the  classic- revival  period;  within 
this  a  modified  form  of  the  old  Greek  fret  and  then  an  irreg- 
ular panel,  the  surface  of  which  is  carved  in  low  relief  with 


FIG.  ll. 

a  foliated  scroll  and  arabesque  that  close  study  discovers  is 
terminated  at  one  end  in  a  grotesque  animal  and  at  the  other 
in  a  bunch  of  fruit. 

26.  Renaissance  Ironwork. — Not  only  was  art  at  this 
period  exemplified  in  details  carved  in  stone  and  marble, 
modeled  in  stucco  and  painted  on  canvas,  but  the  iron 
worker  executed  many  details  that  brought  his  trade  almost 
to  a  fine  art. 

Fig.  13  shows  a  bracket  from  the  Florence  Museum,  rep- 
resentative of  a  cornucopia  filled  with  grapes  and  leaves. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


19 


The  treatment  of  the  scrollwork  and  the  elaboration  of  all 
the  detail  of  this  device  is  peculiarly  well  adapted  to  the 


FIG.  12. 

purpose,  and  altogether  this  exhibits  a  remarkable  design 
for  a  piece  of  work  of  this  kind. 

In  Fig.  14  is  shown  a  portion  of  an  iron  grille  from  the 
cathedral  at  Prato,  one  portion  of  which,  based  on  the  com- 
binations of  the  circle,  shows  a  slight  leaning  toward  Gothic 
ideals,  while  the  panel  to  the  right  is  strictly  Renaissance  in 
the  treatment  of  its  leafwork  and  small  figures;  but  the 


20  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  $  5 

general  direction  of  its  outline,  with  its  alternate  branches  to 
the  left  and  right,  undoubtedly  have  their  origin  in  the 
Gothic  school  of  foliation. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  at  this  period  there  was  no 


separation  in  the  branches  of  the  art  world.  A  man  was 
architect,  painter,  and  sculptor  at  once,  and  often  combined 
these  with  the  trade  of  goldsmith.  The  great  artist  Raffael 
designed  ornaments  for  carvers  in  stone  and  metal,  and 
exhibited  in  them  the  purest  taste  and  most  exquisite  fancy. 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  21 

£7.  Michael  Augfdo,  Sculptor  ami  Artist. — Michael 
Angelo  was  born  in  1475  and  was  a  pupil  of  Domenico 
Ghirlandajo.  Having  shown  at  an  early  age  a  strong  talent 
for  sculpture,  he  was  given  an  opportunity  to  study  in  a 
school  for  the  culture  of  sculpture  founded  by  Lorenzo  de 
Medici.  The  Medici  family  was  banished  from  Florence 
when  Angelo  was  20  years  of  age,  and  the  young  sculptor 


Fin.  II. 

was  forced  to  retire  to  Bologna,  where  he  worked  for  a  while 
on  the  tomb  of  St.  Domini.  He  returned  to  Florence,  how- 
ever, and  about  the  time  of  his  twenty-third  birthday  finished 
his  celebrated  statue  of  Cupid,  and  also  his  Bacchus,  which 
were  the  cause  of  his  being  invited  to  Rome. 

At  Rome,  among  many  other  works  by  him,  is  the  Pieta 
now  standing  in  St.  Peter's  Church.     His  gigantic  statue  of 


22  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

David,  at  Florence,  was  his  next  great  achievement,  and 
before  he  was  30  years  of  age  he  was  summoned  to  Rome 
by  Pope  Julius  II  for  the  purpose  of  designing  his  Mauso- 
leum, for  which  building  the  famous  statues  of  "Moses" 
and  "  The  Slaves  "  were  originally  designed. 

Thus  far  the  work  of  Michael  Angelo  has  apparently  been 
that  of  a  sculptor,  with  possibly  the  exception  of  the  design 
of  the  Mausoleum.  His  next  great  work,  however,  was  the 
painting  of  the  Sistine  Chapel — one  of  the  greatest  of  his 
achievements,  \vhether  we  regard  it  purely  as  a  work  of 
intrinsic  art  or  as  a  monument  that  exercised  a  powerful 
influence  both  on  the  art  of  a  contemporary  character  as  well 
as  that  of  later  times. 

For  Pope  Paul  III,  in  1541,  he  completed  his  vast  fresco 
"The  Last  Judgment"  in  the  same  chapel,  and  the 
remainder  of  his  long  life  was  chiefly  devoted  to  the  con- 
struction of  St.  Peter's  Church,  on  which  he  was  employed 
at  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1564,  and  for  which  he  refused 
any  remuneration. 

During  the  long  life  of  Michael  Angelo,  everything  he 
executed  expressed  a  desire  for  novelty,  and  this  is  the  only 
detraction  he  ever  seemed  to  have  from  the  study  of  pure 
excellence.  His  daring  innovations  in  ornament  are  most 
striking.  His  large  broken  pediments  and  moldings,  his 
sweeping  consoles  and  scrolls,  his  direct  imitation  of  nature 
in  some  of  his  enrichments,  and  the  amount  of  absolutely 
plain  surface  that  he  uniformly  preserved  in  all  his  archi- 
tectural compositions,  seem  to  bring  new  elements  into  the 
field  of  design  that  were  greedily  snapped  up  by  men  of 
lesser  genius  than  he  himself  possessed. 

Thus  the  style  of  the  Roman  school  became  materially 
altered  through  the  work  of  Michael  Angelo.  Subsequent 
artists,  down  even  to  Vignola  himself,  so  far  as  ornament 
was  concerned,  adopted  all  his  beauties,  and  defects  of  design, 
the  greatest  of  which  were  an  exaggeration  of  manner. 

28.  Giacopo  Tatti  Sansovino. — Venice  seems  to  be 
the  only  city  of  Italy  that  did  not  follow  the  style  that  was 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  23 

set  by  Michael  Angelo,  and  this  was  probably  due  to  the  fact 
that  she  had  a  hero  of  her  own  in  Giacopo  Tatti  Sansovino. 
This  artist  was  born  at  Florence  in  the  year  1479.  Having, 
at  an  early  age,  displayed  a  remarkable  talent  for  art,  he  was 
properly  educated  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  build- 
ings at  Florence.  He  was  then  taken  to  Rome  by  San  Gallo, 
architect  of  Pope  Julius  II,  where  he  attracted  the  notice  of 
Bramante,  and  made,  under  Bramante's  direction,  a  large- 
wax  model  of  the  Laocoon,  in  competition  with  other  artists. 
Sansovino's  was  judged  to  be  the  best,  and  a  bronze  cast  was 
taken  of  it  that  finally  came  into  the  possession  of  Cardinal 
Lorraine  and  by  him  was  taken  to  France  in  the  year  1534. 

Sansovino  was  obliged  to  leave  Rome  on  account  of  his 
health,  and  was  placed  by  Bramante  with  the  artist  Peru- 
gino,  who  was  then  painting  the  ceiling  in  the  Toore  Borgia. 
Perugino  was  so  pleased  with  Sansovino's  ability  that  he 
caused  him  to  prepare  many  models  for  his  own  use. 

In  the  year  1514,  most  elaborate  preparations  were  being 
made  at  Florence  for  the  entry  of  Pope  Leo  X,  and  Sanso- 
vino was  employed  in  the  preparation  for  designs  of  many 
triumphal  arches  and  statues.  The  works  were  so  success- 
ful that  he  was  given  the  commission  by  the  Pope  to  make  a 
design  for  the  facade  of  San  Lorenzo,  in  Florence.  After 
this  he  continued  in  Rome  and  was  employed  both  in  sculp- 
ture and  architecture,  and  was  the  successful  competitor  for 
the  church  of  St.  John,  of  the  Florentines,  against  Raffael 
and  Antonio  San  Gallo.  From  this  on  he  was  engaged  on 
work  of  importance  in  Rome  until  the  year  1527,  when 
Rome  was  taken  by  the  French,  and  Sansovino  sought 
refuge  in  Venice,  intending  from  there  to  visit  France, 
where  the  king  had  offered  him  employment.  The  Duke 
Andrea  Gritti,  however,  persuaded  him  to  remain  and 
undertake  the  restoration  of  the  cupolas  of  St.  Mark's 
Church — a  work  that  he  performed  so  successfully  that  he 
was  appointed  to  a  public  office,  given  a  house,  and  provided 
with  a  stipend.  It  was  to  this  appointment  that  Venice 
owes  so  many  architectural  monuments  that  are  among  the 
finest  examples  of  Italian  art. 


24  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

FRENCH    RENAISSANCE. 

29.  Rapidity  of  Transition. — The  transition  from  the 
style  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  style  of  the  Renaissance,  that 
took  place  so  gradually  in  Italy,  was  in  France  sudden  and 
complete.     The  campaigns  of  Charles  VIII,  Louis  XII,  and 
Francis  I  in  Italy  brought  them  in  contact  with  the  wonder- 
ful art  productions  of  that  country,  and  filled  them  on  their 
return    to  France   with  an   ambition  to   rival   the   splendid 
palaces  and  gardens  of  Italy,  for  which  purpose  they  took 
with  them  Italian  artists  to  act  as  instructors  to  the  French. 
However,  although  these  imported  Italians  introduced  many 
classic  elements  and  details  into  French  art,  they  failed  to 
dominate  the  natural    spirit  of  the  French  master  masons 
and  architects  in  matters  of  general  composition.     There- 
fore, the  early  French    Renaissance  is  wholly  unlike  that  of 
Italy,  from  which    it  derived  only  a  few  minor  details  and 
the  impetus   that  carried  it   forwards.      On  account  of  its 
possession  of  greater   originality  than  the  Italian  style,  and 
its  freedom  from  the    baser  incongruities  that  prevailed  in 
the  Renaissance   in  Germany  and  England,  we  can  take  the 
French  style  as  a  good  standard,  and  study  it  as  a  revival  of 
classic   art  modified    almost   perfectly  to  fit   more   modern 
ideas.      It  is  important  in  studying  the  French  Renaissance 
to  bear  in  mind  the  periods  into  which  it  is  divided  and  sub- 
divided, and  also  to  bear  in  mind  the  dates  of  these  periods. 
In  modern  practice,  when  any  designs  are  executed  in  any 
particular  style,  the  French  styles  more  than  any  others  are 
rated  according  to  their  period  rather  than  nationality. 

30.  Periods  of  French  Renaissance. — French  Renais- 
sance may  be  divided  into  three  general  periods:    (1)    Valois 
period,    or    Renaissance  proper ;     (2)    Bourbon,    or    Classic, 
period ;  and  (3)  Rococo  period. 

\.  Valois  Period. — The  Valois  period  extends  from  1483 
(about  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  Charles  VIII  into  Italy)  to 
loSO  (about  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  III).  This  may 
be  subdivided  into:  (c?)  The  Transition  period,  comprising 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  25 

the  reigns  of  Charles  VIII  and  Louis  XII  and  the  early 
years  of  Francis  I,  extending  from  1483  to  1515.  This 
period  is  characterized  by  a  picturesque  mixture  of  classic 
details  and  Gothic  ideas.  (/;)  The  style  of  Francis  I,  or 
Early  Renaissance,  extending  from  about  1520  to  1547.  The 
ornament  of  this  period  is  distinguished  by  its  great  variety 
and  grace  of  composition  and  the  exquisite  beauty  of  detail. 
(c)  The  Advanced  Renaissance,  combining  the  reigns  of 
Henry  II,  Francis  II,  Charles  IX,  and  Henry  III,  extend- 
ing from  1547  to  1589,  and  distinguished  by  the  general 
adoption  of  the  classic  proportions  in  the  orders  and  a  decline 
in  the  delicacy  and  originality  in  the  treatment  of  the  orna- 
ment. In  other  words,  this  period  represents,  as  did  the 
later  Renaissance  of  Italy,  an  attempt  to  actually  reproduce 
all  classic  forms. 

2.  Bourbon   Period.  —  This   period    of    the    Renaissance 
extends  from  1589  to  1715,  covering  the  reign  of  Henry  IV 
and  of  Louis  XIV.      This  may  be  subdivided  into  the  style 
of  Henry  IV,  covering  entirely  his  reign  and  part  of  the 
reign  of    Louis  XIII,    extending   altogether  from    1589  to 
1G45.      The  distinguishing  characteristic   of  this  period  is 
the  excessive  use  of  the  classic  orders  and  other  forms  with 
a  heavy,   bold,   florid  ornament.     The  style   of  Louis  XIV 
begins  during  the  reign  of  his  predecessor  and  extends  to 
the  time  of  his  death — from  1(545  to  1715.     This  is  the  great 
age  of  classic  architecture  in  France,  wherein  the  luxury  and 
wealth  of  the  nation  and  its  desire  for  splendor  exceeded  its 
taste  in  art  and  represented  in  its  architecture  an  attempt  at 
the  grandeur  of  Rome. 

3.  Rococo  Period. — This  period  may  be  considered  the 
decline,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  marked  extravagance  of 
detail  derived  from  the  leaf  and  other  ornamental  forms  of 
previous  periods,   combined  with   rock  and  shell  forms,   so 
capricious  as  to  be  absolutely  meaningless. 

This  period  of  French  Renaissance  terminates  in  what  is 
known  as  the  Empire  style.  This  consisted  of  a  strong  pro- 
test against  the  frivolity  of  the  ornament  of  the  Rococo,  and 
a  return  to  the  actual  detail  of  more  classic  forms.  As  it 


26  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

progressed  into  the  nineteenth  century,  it  expressed  itself 
under  the  reign  of  Napoleon,  as  emperor,  and  attempted  to 
produce  the  grandeur  of  Imperial  Rome. 

France  had  conquered  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  and 
believed  that  she  was  to  set  up  a  universal  empire  covering 
the  entire  country,  as  Rome  had  done,  and  with  this  idea  in 
mind,  built  triumphal  arches,  columns  of  victory,  gorgeous 
palaces,  and  country  chateaux,  and  in  every  way  lavished 
money  on  public  and  private  monuments,  in  an  endeavor  to 
visibly  express  her  imperialism. 

31.  Castles  and  Chateaux. — The  transition  from  the 
Gothic  to  the  Renaissance  is  more  clearly  expressed  in  the 
chateaux,  or  country  residences,  of  the  nobles  than  in  almost 
any  other  class  of  buildings,  and  for  that  reason  we  will  confine 
our  discussion  largely  to  a  few  of  these  interesting  edifices. 


We  have  seen  how  the  castle  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  built 
mainly  for  defense,  its  ornamental  features  being  merely 
an  embellishment  of  the  necessities  that  were  prominent  in 
its  construction.  Such  was  exhibited  in  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  castle  of  Coucy,  Fig.  123,  Historic  Ornament,  §  4. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


27 


The  remodeling  of  these  Gothic  castles  to  suit  the  taste  of 
the  Renaissance  brought  in  many  incongruous  but  very 
picturesque  ideas.  In  Fig.  15,  a  view  of  the  castle  of  Azay- 
le-Rideau,  it  will  be  observed  how  the  towers  and  turrets 
characteristic  of  the  old  style  are  retained,  how  the  upper 
portions  are  still  carried  out  on  bold  corbels,  and  their  tops 


Ouff/n*  fVan  of 
CHATEAU  DE.BLOIS. 


Fie;.  10. 

roofed  over  in  a  cone;  but  the  drawbridge,  the  moat,  and 
the  portcullis  have  disappeared.  Broad  airy  windows  dimin- 
ish the  extent  of  blank  wall  surface  characteristic  of  feudal 
times,  and  pilasters  each  side  of  the  windows,  topped  with 
classic  capitals  and  carved  in  rich  arabesque,  show  the  adop- 
tion of  Italian  art.  The  plan,  composition,  and  grouping 
of  the  parts  are  still  French  and  more  or  less  feudal,  and  the 
Italian  art  has  onlv  affected  the  detail. 


28  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

32.  Chateau  de  Blois. — The  largest,  and,  in  many 
respects,  the  most  important,  of  these  country  residences  of 
royalty  is  the  Chateau  de  Blois,  and  this  we  will  consider  in 
detail,  as  within  it  may  be  traced  the  gradual  transition  of 
each  phase  of  the  French  Renaissance,  from  the  time  of  Louis 
XII  to  the  time  of  Henry  IV,  thereby  including  the  entire 
Valois  and  a  part  of  the  Bourbon  period  of  this  style. 

In  Fig.  16  is  shown  a  plan  of  this  structure,  the  irregularity 
of  which  gives  evidence  of  its  medieval  origin.  About  the 


ll  •     111     ;!• 


nviiii 

^  t(C.    •  ' ^...iii        ••'Ml      ...•..•n.ii-ia*.— -- -~— •* 


FIG.  17. 


year  1500  Louis  XII  remodeled  the  east  wing,  which  bears 
his  name,  a  front  view  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  17.  In  this 
may  be  seen  the  elliptical  arch,  the  clustered  column,  the 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


29 


high-pointed  gable,  and  the  slender  pinnacles  whose  origin 
can  be  traced  to  medieval  days,  but  the  introduction  of  flank- 
ing pilasters  and  arabesque  ornament,  though  here  but  spar- 
ingly seen,  is  suggestive  of  the  change  to  come. 

On  the  outside  of  this  wing,  the  archway  that  leads  through 
to  the  "Court  of  Honor,"  shown 
in  Fig.  18,  is  flanked  on  each 
side  by  heavy  piers,  over  which 
is  a  conventional  Gothic  niche 
wherein,  against  an  elaborate 
background  of  fleur-de-lis,  rides 
King  Louis  XII  on  his  charger. 
To  the  right  of  this  is  a  little 
doorway  that  gives  the  pedestrian 
access  to  the  passage,  and  over 
this  entrance,  in  bas-relief,  is 
carved  a  porcupine,  the  emblem 
of  Louis  XII,  and  a  knotted 
cord  for  Anne  of  Brittany, 
his  queen.  Of  these  emblems 
we  will  have  more  to  say  later. 

We  will  now  turn  to  the  wing  of  Francis  I,  on  the  north- 
west side  of  the  court.  This  was  erected  but  fifty  years 
after  the  one  we  have  just  considered,  but  the  difference 
in  style  is  manifest  even  to  the  most  casual  observer,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  10. 

33.  French  Conception  of  Uoniaii  Ideas. — The  artists 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  hurried  along  by  the  swift  current 
of  fifty  years  of  wonderful  intellectual  regeneration,  seemed 
to  arrive  at  a  comprehension  of  the  use  that  the  Romans  had 
made  of  the  Greek  orders.  They  seemed  to  understand  that 
the  orders  were  not  used  in  Rome  as  elements  of  construc- 
tion, as  they  had  been  in  Greece,  but  as  decorative  details 
having  no  essential  relation  to  the  construction  itself.  They 
seemed  to  comprehend  by  instinct  that  there  was  no  reason 
why  they  should  not  take  those  same  Roman  orders  and 
details  and  use  them  in  anv  wav  thev  chose — structural  or 


FIG.  is. 


30 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


non-structural — so  long  as  their  use  suited  the  purpose  to 
which  they  were  applied. 


Thus  a  study  of  this  period  of  French  architecture  shows 
that  the    French    builders  accepted   not   the   conventional 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


31 


restrictions  of  the  classic  formulas,  but  the  spirit  of  these 
formulas,  as  an  organized  system  of  ornamentation.  A  study 
of  the  court  facade  of  this  Chateau  de  Blois  shows  that  the 
lessons  in  classic  styles  given  by  the  imported  Italian  mas- 
ters were  accepted  by  the  French  architects  with  respect  and 
intelligence,  but  not  learned  by  rote.  The  Italian  rules  had 
an  influence,  but  were  not  accepted  as  a  law. 

34.  Octagonal  Staircase. — The  greatest  artistic  effort 
of  this  period  was  probably  the  octagonal  staircase  that 
appears  in  this  facade.  It  is  considered  one  of  the  master- 
pieces of  the  sixteenth  century,  though  it  is  at  the  same  time 
an  example  illustrative  of  the  audacious  independence  of  the 


FIO.  ao. 

French  architect.  It  has  no  architectural  relation  to  the 
wall  surface  from  which  it  protrudes,  except  that  its  four 
great  free-standing  buttresses  support  a  cornice  and  balus- 
trade that  are  a  continuation  of  those  on  the  wall.  These 
buttresses  are  niched  and  contain  exquisitely  carved  figures, 
while  between  them  extends  the  balustrade  of  the  stairs, 


33  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

divided  into  panels  carved  with  the  crowned  salamander 
emblematic  of  Francis  I,  and  in  other  places  with  the  mono- 
gram F  and  C  under  a  crown,  standing  for  Francis,  and 
Claude,  his  queen. 

In  Fig.  20  is  shown  a  large  detail  of  this  salamander  device, 
and  the  form  of  its  crown,  decorated  with  fleur-de-lis.      This 


FIG.  21. 


is  the  key  of  the  period  and  style,  as  was  the  crowned  porcu- 
pine a  key  to  the  style  of  Louis  XII.  The  fleur-de-lis  will  be 
found  on  nearly  every  detail  connected  with  French  royalty, 
as  it  was  adopted  originally  by  Hugh  Capet,  the  first  king  of 
France. 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  3:i 

If  we  now  go  into  this  castle  and  wander  through  its 
rooms,  we  will  find  many  details  typical  of  the  spirit  of  the 
French  people  and  suggestive  of  their  love  of  display  and 
art.  We  will  be  able  to  judge  largely  the  period  of  each 
particular  room  by  the  emblems  characteristic  of  the  reign. 


Vic..  22. 


35.  Development  of  the  Fireplace. — It  was  about 
the  beginning  of  the  Renaissance  period  that  the  chimney  as 
a  means  of  carrying  off  the  smoke  was  introduced  into 
France,  and  in  the  Chateau  de  Blois  we  see  the  full  develop- 
ment of  the  fireplace.  Therefore  it  will  be  well  to  make  a 


34  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

study  of  these  details  by  themselves,  inasmuch  as  the  student 
can  then  make  a  better  comparison. 

36.  In  Fig.  21  is  shown  an  old  mantel  that  stood  at  the 
end  of  the  great  hall  of  the  States  General.     Its  design  is 
Gothic  in  feeling,  as  is  plainly  shown  by  the  crockets  around 
its  cornice.      The  columns  either  side   of   the  opening   are 
carved  with  Gothic  capitals,   and  the  ornament  extending 
across  the  top  of  the  opening  is  Gothic  in  its  detail,  though 
indicative  of  the  influence  of  the  Renaissance  arabesque. 

In  Fig.  22  is  shown  a  mantel  of  the  hall  of  the  Guards, 
the  details  each  side  of  the  opening  of  which,  as  well  as  the 
panel  across  the  top  of  the  opening  and  the  frame  panel  over 
the  mantel,  are  certainly  Gothic  in  feeling.  The  pilasters  at 
each  side  of  the  mantel,  however,  and  the  capitals  at  their 
tops,  are  certainly  of  Italian  origin  and  design. 

These  two  examples,  particularly  Fig.  21,  give  a  good  idea 
of  the  earliest  ornamental  mantel  used  in  French  art,  and  are 
typical  of  the  designs  in  use  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

37.  Heraldry. — In  Fig.  23  is  shown  the  mantel  known 
as  the  Mantle  of  Crowns,  on  which  in  high  relief  we  find  the 
crowned  porcupine  emblematic  of  Louis  XII,  together  with 
the  crowned  initials  L  and  A,  standing  for  Louis  and  Anne 
of  Brittany,  his  queen.     Around  the  frieze  is  a  knotted  cord 
that  also  is  emblematic  of  Anne  of  Brittany,  and  in  later 
years  was  used  by  some  queens  as  a  sign  of  widowhood.     The 
dolphin  forming  the  background  of  this  mantel,  and  bearing 
the  crowrn  of  France,  appears  as  a  detail  in  many  French 
designs  emblematic  of  heirship  to  the  throne,  the  nearest  heir 
to  the  throne  in  France  being  called  the  Dauphin — a  word 
derived  from  the  dolphin,  that  fish  being  the  emblem. 

Another  interesting  detail  in  this  design  is  found  above 
and  below  the  knotted  cord,  around  the  frieze ;  above  is  the 
conventional  fleur-de-lis  emblematic  of  the  kings  of  France, 
and  below  it  is  the  conventional  form  of  ermine  emblematic 
of  the  queen,  Anne  of  Brittany. 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  .'}/> 

In  Fig.  24  is  shown  another  mantel  from  the  Chateau  de 
Blois,  of  the  period  of  Louis  XII,  in  which  the  crowned  por- 
cupine and  the  crowned  ermine  are  each  displayed  in  sepa- 
rate panels,  the  ermine  in  this  case  being  shown  as  a  complete 
animal  instead  of  the  conventional  form  representing  its  fur, 


FIG.  28. 

as  displayed  in  the  previous  figure.  The  moldings  of  this 
mantel  and  its  general  outline  and  proportions  are  strongly 
suggestive  of  the  Gothic  style,  but  the  treatment  of  the 
arabesque  at  each  side  of  the  panels,  the  carving  of  the 
three-quarter  columns  that  mark  the  separate  panels,  and 
the  frieze  over  the  fireplace,  show  conclusively  their  Italian 


:>>»;  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

origin.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  initials  L  and  A  are 
repeated  across  the  top  of  the  chimney,  and  the  background 
of  the  panels  containing  the  reliefs  of  the  porcupine  and 


FIG.  24. 

ermine  are  each  diapered  with  the  fleur-de-lis  and  conven- 
tional form  of  ermine  fur. 

38.  In  Fig.  25  we  have  another  mantel  of  this  same 
period,  where  the  frieze  over  the  top  of  the  fireplace  opening 
is  evenly  divided  between  the  crowned  initials  of  the  king 
and  queen,  on  a  fleur-de-lis  and  ermine  background,  typical 
of  their  houses  or  families.  The  crowned  porcupine  between 


§  5  HLSTORIC  ORNAMENT.  37 

the  two — the  symbol  of  Louis  XII — appears  in  nearly  all 
designs  executed  during  the  reign  of  that  king.  Above 
the  fireplace  are  the  figures  of  two  angels,  supporting  the 
crown  of  France,  and  the  shield  bearing  the  escutcheons 


FIG.  ;J5. 

of  both  the  king  and  queen.  A  little  observation  of  the 
detail  at  the  top,  and  the  moldings  of  the  columns,  will 
show  that  the  Gothic  influence  still  pervaded  the  art  of 
the  period. 

In  Fig.  2G  is  a  chimney  with  the  emblems  of   Anne    of 
Brittanv.      The    elaborate    A    and    knotted    cords  avrainst  a 


38  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

background  of  ermine,  together  with  the  entire  treatment 
of  the  design,  is  suggestive  only  of  the  house  of  the  queen, 
undivided  with  that  of  King  Louis. 

Fig.  27   shows  a  mantel  wherein  no  initials  occur  to  indi- 
cate to  whom  or  what  period  it  belonged ;  but  we  can  easily 


FIG.  26. 


judge  from  the  presence  of  the  knotted  cord  in  each  of  the 
side  panels,  and  the  existence  of  this  device  as  a  border  to 
the  center  panel,  and  its  stenciled  background  of  ermine  and 
fleur-de-lis,  over  which  the  shield  surrounded  with  shells  has 
been  placed. 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  39 

39.  In  Fig.  28  is  shown  a  mantel  of  the  later  period — 
that  of  Francis  I — a  fact  that  is  clearly  declared  by  the  pres- 
ence of  the  salamander  in  its  design,  a  word  concerning 
which  might  be  necessary.  The  salamander  is  a  mythical 


FIG. 


animal  supposedly  so  cold  blooded  that  it  will  actually  quench 
fire  when  placed  within  it,  and  the  design  here  shown 
expresses  this  idea  of  the  salamander,  standing  on  a  bed  of 
coals  and  surrounded  by  flame  that  he  is  supposed  to  quench 
by  the  coldness  of  his  breath. 


4u  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

The  details  of  this  mantel  are  very  classic.  The  capitals 
of  the  columns  are  derived  undoubtedly  from  the  Italian 
Renaissance.  The  acanthus  leaf  forming  the  bracket  at  the 


FIG.  as. 

corners  of  the  mantel,  and  the  bracket  over  the  crown,  as  a 
sort  of  clumsy  keystone  in  the  center,  are  decidedly  Italian 
in  their  molding.  The  mantel  is  chiefly  interesting  by  its 
strong  personality  and  association  with  the  reign,  period, 
and  person  of  Francis  I. 

4O.     In  Fig.  29  is  shown  what  is  called  the  Chimney  of 
the  Fleur-de-lis,  the  upper  background  of  which  is  stenciled 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  41 

exclusively  with  fleur-de-lis,   and   bears  in  its  center  the 
crowned  shield  surrounded  by  shells. 

We  now  arrive  at  Fig.  30,  a  mantel  in  a  room  known  as 
the  Cabinet  of  the  Queen,  and  here  we  get  the  severe  clas- 


FlG.  29. 

sicism  characteristic  of  the  period  of  Henry  II.  The  pilas- 
ters each  side  of  the  mantel,  and  the  panels  of  the  wall, 
all  richly  carved  in  arabesque,  and  the  frieze  over  the  top  of 
the  mantel,  with  similar  ornament,  show  the  predominating 
influence  of  Italian  art.  The  background  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  mantel,  with  its  stenciled  H  and  fleur-de-lis, 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


and  the  oval  cartouch  or  modillion  in  the  center,  with  its 
crowned  H  surrounded  by  laurel  leaves,  stamp  this  design 
characteristically  with  the  period  of  Henry  II,  while  a  small 
cartouch  in  the  center  of  the  mantel  over  the  fireplace  open- 
ing bears  the  initials  H 
and  C,  standing  for 
Henry,  and  Catherine 
de  Medici,  his  queen. 

The  study  of  these 
designs  and  escutch- 
eons is  of  particular 
interest  to  the  student, 
as  nearly  all  detail  of 
the  French  Renaissance 
period  can  be  classified 
easily  by  bearing  in 
mind  the  heraldic  sym- 
bols characteristic  of 
each  reign  and  period. 

41.  Wall  and  Ceil- 
ing Decoration. — No 

less  interesting  than  the 
mantels  of  this  cele- 
brated chateau  are  the 
decorations  of  the  walls 
and  ceilings  with  the 
characteristic  surface 
ornament  of  the  period. 
The  same  monograms 
and  initials  are  here 
found  in  embossed  leather,  surrounded  by  richly  foliated 
ornamentation  in  strong  colors  and  gold. 

In  Fig.  31  is  shown  a  room  known  as  the  King's  Chamber, 
the  walls  of  which  are  decorated  with  a  repeating  pattern  at 
regular  intervals,  within  which  we  find  the  initials  H  and  C, 
for  Henry  and  Catherine,  the  king  and  queen.  An  enlarged 
detail  of  this  wall  decoration  is  shown  in  Fig.  32,  and  is 


FIG.  30. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


43 


valuable  as  a  characteristic  wall  treatment  of  the  period  of 
this  French  Renaissance. 


In  Fig".  33,  the  decorations  of  Oucen  Catherine's  chamber 
may  be   seen,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  each  of 


44  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

these  rooms  there  is  an  abrupt  termination  between  the  wall 
decorations  of  the  main  room  and  the  dado  or  wainscot  of 
the  niche  or  alcove,  no  attempt  being  made  to  blend  the  two 


FIG.  32. 


patterns  so  that  they  die  or  fit  into  each  other.  The  inde- 
pendence expressed  is  in  perfect  accordance  with  that 
already  spoken  of  in  the  arrangement  of  the  buttresses  of 
the  great  staircase. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


45 


Beyond   this  room,   through  the  open  doorway  seen  in 
Fig.  33,  is  another  apartment,  the  walls  of  which  are  treated 


with  a  surface  decoration  shown  in  Fig.  34.     The  single  letter 
H  under  the  conventional  crown  indicates  this  apartment  to 


46 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


have  been  decorated  in  the  period  and  style  of  Henry  II, 
and  a  little  study  of  the  design  in  comparison  with  Fig.  32 
will  show  the  simplicity  and  neatness  of  the  earlier  style  as 


FIG.  »4. 


compared  with  the  later  one.      Fig.  35  shows  a  third  example 
of  the  wall  decorations  of  this  chateau. 

These  wall  decorations  are  very  valuable  to  the  interior 
decorator  of  today,   inasmuch  as  they  furnish  him  with  a 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 


47 


clear  suggestion  of  the  style  of  interior  work  during  the 
Renaissance  period,  of  which  so  few  examples  are  in  exist- 
ence at  the  present  time. 


42.  Fon  taiiiebleau  and  Versailles. — During  the  decline 
of  the  Renaissance  to  the  period  of  the  Empire,  the  seat  of 
government  and  the  royal  family  were  centered  in  Paris, 
and  the  palaces  of  Fontainebleau  and  Versailles  are  the 


48  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

most  important,  with  the  exception  of  the  Louvre,  of  the 
many  palaces  of  France.  They  are  both  built  up  of  sections 
that  vary  in  style  and  age  from  the  fourteenth  century  to 
the  present  day,  but  in  each  of  these  parts  the  greatest 
architectural  interest  centers  in  the  details  of  the  period  of 
Francis  I  and  his  immediate  successors. 

The  details  of  this  style  of  architecture,  as  seen  in  Fon- 
tainebleau  and  Versailles,  are  more  urban  than  those  from 
the  chateaux  we  have  just  been  considering,  and,  though  all 
these  buildings  in  their  proper  sense  were  palaces,  yet  the 
two  structures  in  present  consideration  were  always  spoken 
of  as  such,  inasmuch  as  they  were  the  city  residences  of  the 
king  in  distinction  from  his  country  seat. 

43.  Variation  of  Styles. — In  the  rooms' of  these  palaces 
can  be    seen  the  furniture  and  decorations  whose  style  is 
typical  of  French  art  during  each  period  of  the  Renaissance 
and  at  the  height  of  its  glory.      Here,  during  the  reigns  of 
Louis  XV  and  Louis  XVI,  we  have  the  style  of  furniture 
characteristic  of  and  known  by  the  names  of  these  monarchs, 
as  well  as  that  dainty  specific  style  of  design  called  Marie 
Antoinette.     After  the  year  1662,  French  furniture  can  be 
roughly  divided  into  foitr  styles,  corresponding  to  the  four 
monarchs  under  whose  influences  its  manufacture  was  car- 
ried on.     These  are:  Louts  XIV,  Louis  XV,  Louis  XVI,  and 
Napoleon,  usually  called  Empire. 

As  in  all  cases  of  subdivision  into  periods,  there  is  a  tran- 
sition from  one  period  to  another  that  makes  the  styles  over- 
lap one  another,  and  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  each 
cannot  be  applied  with  certainty.  The  dividing  lines  in  the 
case  of  French  furniture,  however,  are  more  clearly  drawn 
than  in  other  art  details,  inasmuch  as  each  style  seems  to 
have  been  the  result  of  a  court  fashion  that  depended  largely 
on  the  taste  of  the  reigning  monarch. 

44.  Louis  XIV  loved  pomp  and  grandeur,  and  the  forms 
of  Louis  XIV  furniture  are  bold  and  severe  in  line  and  pro- 
portion— a   fact    that   kept  them  from  appearing  gaudy  in 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  49 

their  excessive  gilding.  A  great  desire  in  furniture  at  this 
period  was  magnificence,  and  native  woods  were  set  aside  in 
preference  for  foreign  woods  from  India  and  America. 
Rarity  of  material  was  of  more  importance  than  any  other 
detail,  and  artistic  composition  was  now  relegated  to  an 
inferior  place.  The  effect  of  this  was  to  make  the  details 
small,  as  the  use  of  costly  materials  required  that  they  should 
be  treated  with  care  and  that  even  the  smallest  fragments 
should  be  used. 

45.  Introduction  of  Costly  Materials. — A  great  differ- 
ence was  thus  established  between  the  old-fashioned  joiner, 
faithful  to  the  carving  of  native  woods,  and  the  cabinetmaker 
to  the  king,  whose  care  was  to  produce  objects  of  magnifi- 
cence.    In  other  words,  vulgarity  was  introduced  into  the 
scheme  of  ornament,  and  brilliant  and  costly  materials  were 
used  solely  for  their  expression  of  brilliancy  and  costliness ; 
and  it  is  from  this  standpoint  that  French  furniture  of  this 
period  must  be  regarded.     The  skill  lavished  upon  it  and 
the  fancy  and  variety  that  characterizes  its  design  and  the 
minuteness  of  its   workmanship  in  inlaid  surfaces,  graven 
and  chiseled  brasses,  and  the  ingenuity  of  its  construction 
and  expense,  can  then  be  appreciated. 

46.  Discouragement     of    Symmetry. —  During    the 
period  of  Louis  XV,  furniture  loses  the  dignity  of  outline 
and  proportion  that  characterized  that  of  the  previous  style, 
although  it  possesses  all  the  brilliancy  and  gaudiness  of  the 
former.     Another  detail  of  importance  between  these  two 
styles  is  that  in  the  Louis  XIV  work  symmetry  was  not  dis- 
tinctly observed,  as  the  great  effect  of  varied  light  and  shade 
was  enhanced  by  the  abruptness  of  vms5Tmmetrical  parts.    In 
the  period  of  Louis  XV,  this  eccentricity  became  a  law,  and 
symmetry  became  not  only  a  detail  of  no  consequence,  but 
a  thing  not  to  be  encouraged.     This  caused  the  design  to 
reach  the  height  of  irregularity,  and  the  style  took  the  name 
of  Rococo — a  term  in  the  French  language  meaning  frivolous. 

In  this  eccentric  ornamentation  other  details  figured,  and 


50  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

roses,  cornucopia,  vases,  scrolls,  etc.  are  interwoven  with  a 
great  predominance  of  shell-like  forms.  There  is  nothing  in 
the  entire  range  of  art  acting  as  an  example  or  prototype  of 
this  Rococo  idea.  Every  shape  and  line  throughout  it  is 
twisted  and  turned  until  it  is  almost  a  deformity;  the 
ordinary  acanthus  scroll  was  carried  into  an  endless  reedy 
foliation.  Nature  appeared  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  rude  and 
barbarous  affair  that  needed  some  dressing  of  French  taste, 
and  yet  some  specimens  of  Louis  XV  furniture  impress  us 
both  with  the  actual  skill  of  the  man  that  did  the  work, 
whether  in  metal  or  wood,  and  that  the  pieces  of  furniture 
are  themselves  marvels  of  decoration.  These  twists  and 
turns,  though  absolutely  meaningless,  seem  to  have  an  object. 
They  reflect  the  light  from  gilded  metal  in  a  thousand 
different  ways,  and  from  a  thousand  different  points,  while 
the  high  relief  affords  an  abundant  play  of  light  and  shade 
amidst  this  brightness.  Toward  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Louis  XV,  a  reaction  set  in  against  these  absurdities,  sim- 
ply because  the  exaggerated  style  was  being  carried  beyond 
reasonable  limits. 

47.  Under  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI,  the  furniture  is 
similar  to  that  of  his  predecessor,  inasmuch  as  the  festoons, 
garlands,  gildings,  and  shell  decorations  still  exist,  but  the 
shape  of  the  chair,  and  the  care  and  study  expended  on  it, 
is  very  different.  Refinement  is  evident  in  every  one  of  its 
lines  and  proportions.  The  earlier  chair,  with  sprawling 
legs — called  the  cancan — was  not  to  be  accepted  during  the 
reign  of  Louis  XVI,  but  to  be  departed  from  as  widely  as 
circumstances  would  permit.  During  this  period,  we  find 
none  of  the  bandy-legged  forms  of  the  chair  and  table 
characteristic  of  the  previous  style,  but  straight-turned  and 
sometimes  fluted  shafts  imitative  of  attenuated  vases  or 
cups,  or  suggestive  of  little  columns  or  colonnettes.  The 
gilding  was  used,  not  entirely  over  the  surface,  to  increase 
the  gaudy  appearance,  but  in  lines,  to  accentuate  the  fluting 
of  the  column-like  legs  more  than  to  emphasize  the  curves 
of  the  moldings  that  were  turned  according  to  Greek  ideas. 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  61 

48.  The  entire  interior  decoration  of  this  period  par- 
took of  a  similar  reformation.  The  panels  of  the  rooms 
were  divided  into  straight  lines,  and  omitted  all  details  of 
the  rococo  flourishes.  These  panels  were  painted  white, 
and  the  pilasters  between  them  were  carved  in  rich  and 
delicately  executed  arabesque. 

The  whole  scheme  of  decoration  of  this  period  was 
equally  elaborate  and  rich  with  that  of  its  predecessors,  and 
various  articles  of  furniture  were  made  of  tulip  wood, 
laburnum,  or  of  rosewood,  and  on  other  occasions  they 
would  be  executed  in  lighter  wood,  colored  in  various  gold 
and  brown  shades  by  means  of  a  hot  iron.  The  chief  orna- 
ment was  marquetry  of  elaborate  pattern,  usually  in  floral 
garlands  with  borders  of  fine  diaper  work.  The  chairs, 
beds,  and  couches  were  usually  upholstered  in  fine  Gobelin 
tapestry  or  costly  French  and  Italian  silks,  all  of  which  were 
further  enriched  by  beautiful  metal  mounts,  while  inlaid 
bits  of  Sevres  porcelain  added  a  delicacy  to  the  whole. 


GERMAN    AND    ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE. 

49.  Influence  of  Italian  Art. — Renaissance  ornament 
penetrated  into  Germany  at  an  early  period,  but  was  not 
particularly  popular  at  first,  and  took  no  hold  on  the  hearts 
of  the  people  until  the  spread  of  books  and  engravings  pre- 
pared the  way  to  the  adaptation.     From  an   early  period 
there  had  been  a  steady  current  of  artists  leaving  Germany 
to  study  art  in  Italy,  and  the  return  of  these  affected  many 
of  their  countrymen. 

50.  Albert  Durer,  a  German  artist  and  illustrator,  in 
many   of  his   engravings,  showed  a  perfect  understanding 
of  the  conditions  of  Italian  design,  leaning  occasionally  to 
the  Gothic   style  of  his  early  master  and  on  other  occa- 
sions to  the  Italian  style  of  his  more  recent  studies.     .The 
spread    of   these    engravings    undoubtedly    influenced   the 
German    taste,  but,  even   at  its  best,  the  Renaissance  of 
Germany  was  impure.      The  inclination  of  her  people  for 


52  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

difficiilties  that  could  be  solved  by  the  hand  rather  than 
by  the  head  soon  led  her  into  strapwork,  jeweled  forms, 
and  monstrous  devices  more  animated  than  graceful,  but 
exhibiting  fully  the  delight  of  the  clever  mechanic  to 
execute  details  that  were  difficult  to  handle  but  easy  to 
conceive. 

51.  Introduction  Into  England. — The  introduction  of 
Renaissance  art  into  England   dates  from  about  the  year 
1518,   when   Henry  VIII  employed  an   Italian  architect  to 
design  a  monument  in  memory  of  Henry  VII,  which  still 
exists  in  Westminster  Abbey  and  is  almost  a  pure  example 
of  the  Italian  style  of  that  period. 

The  same  architect  designed  a  monument  of  the  Countess 
of  Richmond  at  Westminster,  and  shortly  afterwards  left 
England  for  Spain,  leaving  behind,  however,  a  number  of 
Italians  attached  to  the  service  of  Henry  VIII,  by  whom  a 
taste  for  the  Italian  style  was  thoroughly  inoculated  into 
the  country.  Among  these  was  the  architect  John  of  Padua, 
who  appears  to  have  done  more  work  than  any  of  the  others, 
among  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  old  Sommerset 
House,  built  in  1549. 

At  the  time  these  Italian  artists  were  spreading  a  taste  for 
Italian  architecture  and  sculpture  throughout  the  length 
and  breadth  of  England,  another  influence  was  at  work  to 
temper  this  style  and  prevent  its  being  accepted  in  its  purest 
form. 

52.  Holbein.  —  In  1524,   the  celebrated  German  artist 
Holbein  came  to  England  from  Holland,   and  to  him  and 
John  of  Padua  is  due  mainly  the  resulting  style  of  archi- 
tecture  that   appeared   in    England   during    the   reign    of 
Elizabeth.      Holbein  was  a  man  of  great  individual  genius 
as  a  painter,  and  naturally  inclined  to  establish  the  taste  of 
the  German  school  in    England,    and,    though   he    died   in 
1554 — thirty  years  after  entering  the  country — his  influence 
on  John  of  Padua  is  plainly  seen  in  the  results  of  that  archi- 
tect during  the  subsequent  years. 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  53 

5.'*.  Dutch  Influence. — At  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  a 
number  of  artists  came  over  from  Holland,  built  several 
buildings,  and  painted  many  portraits,  and,  though  these 
artists  and  architects  were  thoroughly  imbued  with  a  taste 
for  Italian  art,  that  taste  was  certainly  affected  by  their 
Dutch  surroundings  and  education. 

Theodore  Havens,  of  Cleves,  was  architect  of  four  gates 
of  Caius  College,  in  England,  built  toward  the  close  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  at  this  time  it  appears  that  most  of 
the  Italian  architects  had  left  the  country.  There  were 
many  English  goldsmiths  and  jewelers,  as  well  as  a  number 
of  artists  and  architects,  whose  names  appear  prominently 
at  this  time,  and  all  this  jointly  had  the  effect  of  conglom- 
erating the  Dutch,  Italian,  and  English-Gothic  style  of  art. 

54.  Political  Ties  of  England  and  Holland. — During 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  we  meet  a  great  preponderance  of 
Dutch  names,  considering  that  it  was  an  English  country, 
which  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  England  was  bound 
by  political  and  religious  ties  with  Holland;  and  although 
the  greater  number  of  these  names  are  applied  to  artists  and 
painters,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  the  arts  were 
connected  closely  in  those  days,  and  artists  and  sculptors 
were  frequently  employed  to  design  models  for  ornament 
and  even  for  architecture,  and,  in  the  accessories  of  their 
own  pictures,  found  frequent  opportunity  for  the  exhibition 
of  ornamental  design. 

Michael  Angelo  was  an  artist  and  painted  the  ceiling  and 
side  walls  of  the  Sistinc  Chapel,  at  Rome ;  Michael  Angelo 
was  a  sculptor  and  carved  much  of  the  statuary  that  now 
stands  in  the  corridors  of  some  of  the  most  prominent 
museums  of  Europe;  Michael  Angelo  was  an  architect  and 
completed  the  building  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  in  Rome,  the 
most  stupendous  undertaking  of  the  age  and  the  largest 
structure  now  in  existence. 

55.  Influences   on   English   Art. — During  the  early 
part  of  Queen   Elizabeth's  reign,   we  are  then  justified  in 


54  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

concluding  that  a  most  important  influence  must  have  been 
exercised  on  English  art,  through  the  medium  of  the  Prot- 
estant states  and  low  countries  and  also  of  Germany. 

Heidelberg  Castle,  in  Germany,  was  completed  about  this 
time,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  this,  too,  had  an  effect  on 
English  art,  especially  when  we  consider  that  Princess  Eliza- 
beth, daughter  of  James  I  of  England,  was  queen  of  Bohemia, 
and  held  court  at  Heidelberg  about  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Records  show  that  toward  the  close 
of  'Elizabeth's  reign,  and  about  the  beginning  of  that  of 
James  I,  English  artists  seem  to  have  predominated,  and  it 
would  appear  that  at  this  time  would  be  found  the  most 
likely  development  of  a  strictly  native  style.  It  is  to  be 
deplored,  however,  that  this  period  of  English  art,  known  as 
Jacobean,  is  undoubtedly  the  most  inartistic,  inappropriate, 
and  ill-composed  in  all  history. 

56.  Elizabethan  Ornament. — Thus  we  may  expect  to 
meet  with  the  purest  Italian  ornament  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.      During  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  his  daughter, 
wre    perceive  but  a  slight  imitation  of   the   Italian   models 
and  an  almost  complete  adoption  of  the  style  of  ornament 
practiced  by   the    decorative   artists   of  Germany   and   the 
Netherlands.       In   the    reign   of  James   I,  Elizabeth's   suc- 
cessor, we  find  this  same  style  continued,  or  attempted  to 
be  continued,   by  the  English  artists,  but   in  a  large   and 
gross  manner. 

57.  Characteristics. — There  is  little,  then,  that  can  be 
justly  termed  original  in  Elizabethan  ornament.      It  consists 
more  of  an  adaptation  of  foreign  elements — an  adaptation  of 
elements  with  which  the  adapters  had  no  intimacy,  and  about 
which  they  had  little  understanding.     The  characteristics  of 
Elizabethan  ornament  may  be  described  as  consisting  chiefly 
of  a  grotesque  and  complicated  variety  of  pierced  scrollwork 
with  curled  edges,  as  though  a  number  of  short  straps  were 
interwoven  and  their  ends  allowed  to  curl  up;  of  interlaced 
bands,  sometimes  on  a  geometrical  pattern,  but  more  often 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  55 

flowing  irregularly  and  capriciously ;  bands  composed  of  strap 
and  nail-head  ornaments;  festoons  of  fruit  and  drapery  inter- 
spersed with  roughly  executed  figures  of  human  beings; 
grotesque  monsters  and  animals,  with  here  and  there  large 
and  flowing  designs  of  natural  branch  and  leaf  ornament. 
High-paneled  apartments  often  filled  with  designs, of  foliage, 
shields,  and  coats  of  arms,  grotesque  keystones  in  arches, 
and  immense  flowing  brackets,  are  freely  used;  and  the 
carving,  whether  in  wood  or  stone,  is  always  very  roughly 
and  crudely  executed,  and  the  design  coarse  and  ill-adapted 
to  the  material  in  which  it  is  executed. 

Unlike  the  adoption  of  the  Classic  style  in  Italy  and 
France,  these  ornaments  are  not  applied  to  a  Gothic  system 
of  construction,  but  the  entire  building  is  masked  under  a 
coat  of  plaster  or  other  material,  and  the  groundwork  of 
classic  simplicity  is  first  laid,  to  receive  the  meaningless 
ornament  that  stamps  the  period. 

58.  Revival  of  Antique  Art. — About   the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  revival  of  the  antique  art, 
which  we  have  already  discussed,  in  Italy  became  invigorated 
and  reduced  to  a  system,  as  we  have  said  before,  through  its 
popular  introduction  afforded  by  the  means  of  printing  and 
engraving.     Translations  of  the  work  of  Vitruvius,  copiously 
illustrated   and   ably  commented  upon,   were   printed  and 
spread  so  as  to  become  the  foundation  of  work  for  every 
designer  of  eminence  throughout  the  country,  and  at  the 
same  time  offered  a  suggestion  on  which  at  least  half  a  dozen 
other  writers  prepared  treatises  on  architecture,  among  them 
Palladio  and  Vignola,  whose  works  have  been  preserved  and 
form  the  standard  down  to  the  present  day. 

59.  Architecture  and  ornament  during  the  period  of  the 
English  Renaissance  may  be  considered  as  failures  from  an 
artistic  standpoint.     The  purest  ornament  developed  during 
this  great  historical  period  we  find  in  France,  where  it  was 
uninfluenced  by  any  foreign  elements  of  importance  except 
those  received  from  Italy  with  the  style  itself. 


56  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

CONCLUSION. 

60.  Object  of  Complete  Reviewal  of  Historic  Orna- 
ment.— -Thus  we  have  considered  the  entire  range  of  historic 
ornament,  from  the  earliest  days  of  Egypt  to  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century.     The  object  of  this  study  has  not 
been  to  acquire  a  number  of  forms  that  were  characteristic 
of  each  period,  that  the  student  might  copy  or  imitate  out- 
lines and  designs  of  the  past,    in   order  to  execute  ideas 
characteristic  of  a  certain  historic  period.     The  purpose  has 
been  to  train  the  mind  in  order  that  the  natural  develop- 
ments arising  from  conditions  in  the  past  can  be  applied  to 
the  probable  conditions  that  would  arise  under  similar  cir- 
cumstances of  the  present  day  and  the  future. 

61.  Influences  Affecting  Styles  of  Art.— It  has  been 
pointed    out   that    religion,    politics,    and   geography   have 
affected  the  character  of  ornament  in  different  countries,  as 
well  as  historic  influences,  and  at  the  present  day  we  find 
that  the  majority  of  the  ornament  is  affected  by  the  inven- 
tions and  advancement  in  science  and  art  characteristic  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  as  was  the  Renaissance  period  char- 
acterized by  the  advancement  of  learning  in  its  period.      In 
fact,   the   latter  half    of   the   nineteenth   century  has   been 
characterized  by  some  writers  as  a  New  Renaissance,  if 
such  a  term  can  be  reasonably  used.      It  certainly  bears  a 
similar  relation,  to  the  three  hundred  years  that  preceded  it, 
that  the  beginning  of  the   Renaissance  period  bore  to  the 
centuries  before  its  dawn. 

62.  Effect  of  Environments  on  Art  and  Architec- 
ture.— In  the  fifteenth  century,   we  have  the  introduction 
of  books  to  the  masses  of  people,  through  the  invention  of 
the  printing  press  and  printing.      A  spread  of  desire  for  art 
and  learning  followed  as  soon  as  the  antiquities  of  Rome 
and  Greece  were  learned,  and  with  this  development  of  the 
human  mind,  a  rapid  advancement  of  civilization  took  place 
that  characterizes  the  period  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  in 
history. 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  57 

In  the  same  manner,  we  have  a  number  of  inventions 
characteristic  of  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
that  have  so  changed  the  conditions  of  man  that  his  entire 
habits  and  character  are  different  from  those  of  his  ancestors 
in  the  Renaissance  period.  Steam  and  electricity  have  been 
controlled  so  as  to  convert  night  into  day,  and  make  it  no 
longer  necessary  to  discontinue  any  line  of  work  or  manu- 
facture at  sunset.  These  same  agents  have  rendered  the 
distances  between  business  centers — even  on  two  continents 
—matters  of  only  a  few  hours'  or  days'  travel.  Conversa- 
tion between  individuals  a  thousand  miles  apart  is  so  easily 
maintained  that  it  may  be  considered  that  space,  from  a 
business  standpoint,  is  practically  annihilated,  and,  with  a 
hundred  other  inventions,  we  are  confronted  with  a  propo- 
sition in  design  today  that  makes  the  traditions  and  devices 
of  past  ages  simply  symbols  of  antiquity. 

The  modern  mind  is  so  imbued  with  mechanics  and  inven- 
tions that  the  present  age  can  give  little  time  to  the  study 
and  development  of  a  national  or  characteristic  art.  Designs 
of  the  past  have  been  copied,  and  we  are  satisfied  to  imitate 
what  has  been  done  in  this  line,  instead  of  trying  to  do  some- 
thing for  ourselves.  The  human  mind  has  not  attempted  to 
invent  practical  art  forms,  and  years  hence  the  study  of  the 
art  of  this  period  will  be  considered  in  much  the  same  terms 
that  we  now  consider  the  art  of  the  Jacobean  period  in 
England. 

63.  Adherence  to  Old  Designs.  —  A  simple  illustra- 
tion of  this  may  perhaps  be  seen  in  the  ordinary  chandelier, 
or  hanging  light.  In  the  days  when  candles  furnished  all 
the  light  for  rich  and  poor  that  was  obtainable,  it  was  cus- 
tomary that  a  rod  or  bar  should  hang  from  some  portion  of 
the  room  and  support  on  its  end  one  or  more  candles.  The 
introduction  of  lamps  to  general  use  made  it  necessary  that 
there  should  be  a  bulb  or  metal  globe  somewhere  near  the 
bottom  of  this  rod,  to  be  filled  with  oil  to  supply  the  lamp  that 
still  was  suspended  from  the  ceiling  by  a  rod,  or,  occasion- 
ally, a  chain.  With  the  introduction  of  gas  as  illuminating 


58  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

power,  the  rod  was  replaced  by  a  pipe,  still  in  imitation 
of  the  old  rod,  but  serving  the  double  purpose  of  support- 
ing" the  chandelier  and  conveying  the  gas  to  the  burner. 
The  horizontal  bars  that  formerly  carried  lamps  now  carry 
lava  tips  from  which  the  gas  burns,  and  the  large  round 
balls  or  globes  that  originally  contained  the  oil  to  supply  the 
lamp  are  now  false,  hollow  devices,  used  to  cover  the  joints 
where  the  vertical  and  horizontal  bars  are  united.. 

In  addition  to  this,  elaborate  designs  for  gas  fixtures  often 
introduced  long  chains  from  various  portions  of  their  cross- 
bars to  staples  in  the  ceiling,  suggesting  that  these  fixtures 
were  hung  from  the  ceiling  by  chains,  as  the  lamps  of  old — 
a  clumsy  deceit,  inasmuch  as  the  chains  nearly  always  hung 
loose  and  the  fixture  was  plainly  supported  by  its  central 
pipe. 

From  a  point  of  design,  nothing  could  be  more  incon- 
sistent than  to  borrow  the  chain  that  hung  the  lamp  of  our 
ancestors  and  use  it  as  a  decorative  element  where  it  was 
allowed  to  hang  in  a  limp  curve,  on  account  of  this  outline 
being  more  pleasing  to  the  eye.  The  reason  for  this  is  to 
be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  designer  did  not  invent  new 
conditions  to  suit  the  new  material.  Had  he  never  known 
of  chandeliers  for  candles  and  lamps  and  been  called  upon 
to  design  a  device  for  gas,  there  is  no  doubt  he  would  have 
done  much  better.  His  knowledge  of  historic  ornament  in 
lamp  fixtures,  therefore,  did  not  benefit  him,  but  injured  his 
ability  to  design  something  original  for  gas,  and  now,  with 
the  introduction  of  electricity,  many  are  continuing  in  the 
same  error  today. 

64.  All  that  is  required  for  an  electric-light  illumination 
is  a  pair  of  small  wires  to  convej^  the  current,  and  a  bulb  in 
which  the  incandescent  fiber  is  enclosed.  The  designer  is 
free  to  use  these  two  agents  in  any  form  he  pleases,  to  elabo- 
rate them  in  any  way  he  chooses,  and  to  produce  an  equal 
illumination  of  a  room  in  the  simplest  and  most  artistic  way 
that  circumstances  can  possibly  admit.  Yet,  the  majority 
of  our  electrolier  designs  are  based  on  developments  of  the 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  59 

old  gas  fixtures,  or,  in  some  instances,  going  back  to  the 
old  candelabra  of  our  forefathers,  where  tiny  lights  are 
poised  on  the  ends  of  glass  imitation  tapers,  designed  with 
the  ornament  and  after  the  style  of  the  old  dim  candles  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  but  burning  with  the  brilliant  electric 
illumination  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

65.     Use  of  Historic  Ornament  in  Designing.  —  In 

making  use  of  historic  ornament  for  a  matter  of  design, 
there  are  two  methods  the  student  may  legitimately  pursue. 
He  may  make  a  design  for  any  purpose  whatsoever,  which 
he  may  call  after  the  style  of  Louis  XII,  for  instance,  and  to 
carry  out  his  idea,  may  honestly  and  confessedly  borrow 
details  from  prominent  chateaux  or  castles  and  carry  them 
out  with  all  the  crude  simplicity  of  this  Medieval  period. 
Or  he  may  accept  only  the  spirit  of  the  period  and  produce 
designs  that  are  copies  of  nothing  that  has  ever  existed 
before,  but  are  applications  of  the  simplicity  and  sternness 
of  the  necessities  of  that  time  to  the  change  of  conditions 
existing  in  his  new  surroundings.  In  other  words,  he  may 
duplicate  a  historic  building,  in  some  cases,  to  produce  an 
emphatic  suggestion  of  a  historic  period,  or  he  may  erect 
an  entirely  new  structure  that  is  designed  of  modern  mate- 
rials and  with  modern  methods,  but  the  spirit  dominating 
that  is  similar  to  the  spirit  of  the  time  he  would  have  it 
represent. 

Another  illustration  of  this  point  may  make  it  more  clear. 
A  sitting  room  or  library  that  is  to  be  decorated  in  the 
so  called  Gothic  style  need  not  be  trimmed  with  antique 
oak,  carved  with  deep  moldings,  and  furnished  with  uncom- 
fortable high-back  chairs  that  run  to  a  point,  with  finial  and 
crockets,  after  the  shape  of  church  windows,  but  it  can  be 
decorated  and  furnished  in  the  spirit  of  that  period,  with 
furniture  more  suitable  to  modern  times.  It  need  not  be 
oak  if  mahogany  suits  better,  nor  need  the  chairs  be  high 
back  or  pointed.  The  treatment  of  this  interior  will  consist 
more  of  an  avoidance  of  what  is  wrong  than  of  an  introduc- 
tion of  what  is  absolutely  correct. 


GO  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

Carpets  on  floors  were  practically  unknown  at  this  period, 
and  some  of  the  richest  palaces  had  floor  coverings  of  no 
better  material  than  straw;  but  in  the  nineteenth  century 
we  require  carpet,  and  our  Gothic  interior  need  not  be  made 
as  crude  as  a  barn  in  order  to  be  correct ;  we  can  use  hard- 
wood floors  and  rugs,  or  if  carpet  is  more  desirable,  we 
must  avoid  colors  and  designs  that  are  inconsistent  with  the 
spirit  of  our  purpose. 

66.  Window   and   Wall    Ornamentation. — We  must 
remember  that  glass  was  scarce  and  expensive  at  this  time, 
and  that  in  most  cases  the  windows  were  large  and  filled 
with  small  panes — first,  for  the  admission  of  sunshine  and 
air,  and,  second,  for  economy.      But  glass  is  cheap  now,  and 
it  is  not  necessary  that  we  should  divide  our  windows  lip 
into  a  multitude  of  trivial  openings,  in  order  that  our  panes 
may  be    small,    because   they  were   in   the    Gothic  period. 
Leaded  glass  and  stained  glass  existed  in  those  days  and 
can  be  used  now  to  obtain  any  effect  we  desire  that  is  con- 
sistent with  our  purpose.     Walls  were  hung  with  tapestries 
at  that  time,  whereas  to-day  the  paper  manufacturer  has, 
for  economical  reasons,  crowded  the  tapestry  industry  into  a 
comparatively  second   place,   except  for  the  very  wealthy. 
However,  we  can  cover  our  walls  with  paper  if  we  choose, 
but  its  design  should  not  be  suggestive  of  any  period  but 
the  one  we  have  in  mind. 

And  so  throughout,  all  our  efforts  may  be  carried  out  with 
the  material  we  have  in  hand  or  available  at  the  present 
time,  if  we  but  stop  to  consider  the  reason  for  certain  things 
in  the  past  and  a  reason  why  they  should  or  should  not  be 
reproduced  in  the  present. 

67.  This   same   suggestion   applies  to  the  designer  of 
fabrics  of  all  kinds  as  well  as  to  the  decorator,  and,  whether 
executing  a  design  for  a  carpet,  wall  paper,  dress  fabric,  or 
linen  damask,  it  is  a  simpler  matter,  if  its  practice  is  once 
started,  to  imitate  the  spirit  of  any  age  or  style  than  it  is  to 
attempt  to  copy  the  elements  of  existing  designs. 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  61 

HISTORIC  LETTERING. 

68.  Lettering  does  not  in  reality  form  a  part  of  Historic 
Ornament  as  the  various  other  ornamental  details  do,  but  it 
is  here  introduced  with  .the  explanation  of  the  characteristics 
of  each  style,  in  order  that  it  may  be  associated  with  the 
ornamental  style  of  each  characteristic  period.    We  all  know 
that  there  was  no  such  style  of  alphabet  as  we  term  Antique 
Egyptian  extant  in  ancient  Egypt,  but  we  do  find  letters  of 
this  character  in  certain  Roman  works  executed  at  a  late 
period  on  Egyptian  soil,  and  it  is  from  these  that  it  derives  its 
name.     The  styles  of  letter  here  given  must  all  be  accepted 
with  a  certain  amount  of  liberality,  as  each,  though  in  har- 
mony with  the  period  it  represents,  has  certain  modern  char- 
acteristics introduced  for  purely  commercial  advantages. 

69.  The  practical  designer  is  frequently  called  upon  to 
execute  ornamental  lettering  appropriate  to  some  historic 
style  and  in  harmony  with  some  practical  purpose.     For  this 
reason  the   student  is  herewith  given  a  number  of  useful 
alphabets,  with  a  brief  description  of  each,  that  will  enable 
him  to  execute  the  outlines  of  each  letter  properly  and  pro- 
portion them  according  to  rules.     The  titles  given  to  these 
alphabets  are  names  by  which  they  are  known  in  modern 
use  and  explain  themselves. 

There  is  no  rule  by  which  one  can  determine  what  style 
of  letter  is  best  suited  to  each  particular  purpose,  but  it  is 
well  to  bear  in  mind  that  legibility  is  always  the  first  con- 
sideration, and  where  the  lettering  of  a  design  is  intended 
to  convey  direct  information,  as  in  a  sign  or  piece  of  adver- 
tising matter,  the  lettering  should  be  simple  and  clear  in 
order  that  the  purpose  of  the  design  may  not  fail.  On  the 
other  hand,  where  the  lettering  is  for  a  certificate,  diploma, 
memorial,  or  other  piece  of  matter  that  is  more  ornamental 
than  instructive,  the  lettering  may  be  elaborated  to  any 
degree  within  reasonable  limits.  The  relative  amount  of 
space  covered  by  letters  and  background  is  a  matter  of 
design  that  is  considered  in  the  same  manner  as  spotting, 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  03 

and  the  proportions  of  letters  to  each  other  must  also  be 
considered  in  the  composition  of  the  design,  as  matters  of 
the  principal  and  subordinate  parts  of  the  same  design,  all 
of  which  will  be  more  fully  explained  hereafter. 

Elaboration  of  letters  or  the  use  of  elaborate  letters  does 
not  enhance  either  the  beauty  or  the  value  of  the  design 
unless  these  letters  are  used  intelligently,  and  a  plain  letter 
correctly  and  intelligently  proportioned  will  produce  a  much 
more  pleasing  effect  than  the  most  elaborate  style  badly  and 
ignorantly  arranged. 


ANTIQUE    EGYPTIAN    ALPHABET. 

7O.  This  letter,  Fig.  36,  is  almost  identical  with  the  plain 
Egyptian,  the  distinction  being  in  the  addition  of  the  spur  at 
the  angles  of  the  letters,  but  no  variation  occurs  in  the  propor- 
tion of  the  letter  or  its  stroke.  The  stroke  of  a  letter  is  the 
proportional  width  of  its  heavy  lines  in  comparison  with  its 
height.  In  this  letter  the  stroke  is  one-fifth  the  height,  as 
shown  by  the  small  squares  in  which  the  letter  surface  is 
divided.  Some  designers  make  the  spur  much  more  exag- 
gerated than  is  shown  on  this  plate,  while  others  make  it 
scarcely  perceptible.  The  examples  given  herewith,  how- 
ever, may  be  taken  as  an  average,  wherein  the  spur  projects 
about  one-third  the  width  of  the  stroke.  All  letters  having 
a  horizontal  stroke,  as  the  E,  L,  etc. ,  have  these  strokes  fin- 
ished with  a  beveled  end,  on  which  the  spur  is  added  at 
the  same  angle.  The  ends  of  the  strokes  of  the  C  and  the 
iipper  stroke  of  the  G  and  S,  and  figures  2,  3,  5,  6,  and  P  are 
beveled  at  an  angle  opposite  to  that  of  the  other  letters 
referred  to  above.  This  bevel,  shown  on  the  upper  terminal 
of  C\  is  made  by  drawing  a  line  from  a  point  one-fourth  the 
width  of  the  stroke  to  the  right  of  5  a  to  a  point  one-third 
the  width  of  the  stroke  to  the  left  of  5  c.  The  points  5  a  and 
fie  refer  to  the  intersection  of  the  fifth  vertical  line  from 
the  left  side  of  the  letter,  with  the  third  horizontal  line 
marked  c. 

The  middle  bar  of  the  A  is  the  width  of  the  stroke  below 


<;4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

the  center;  the  middle  bar  of  the  //is  one-half  the  width  of 
the  stroke  above  the  center;  while  the  middle  bars 'of  the  E 
and  I7  are  exactly  in  the  center.  The  J  is  finished  with  a 
spur  at  ~>  c,  as  well  as  just  above  1  c.  The  points  that  deter- 
mine the  inclination  of  the  strokes  of  the  K  are  from  5  a  to 
two-thirds  the  width  of  the  stroke  below  2  d,  and  from  ^/to 
the  intersection  of  the  upper  slanting  stroke  with  line  3  one- 
third  the  width  of  the  stroke  above  d.  The  two  slanting 
strokes  of  the  M  meet  in  the  center  of  the  letter  at  a  point 
on  line  /",  and  no  spurs  exist  on  the  insides  of  the  slanting 
strokes  at  the  top.  The  tail  of  the  Q  is  cut  on  an  angle  of 
45  degrees,  the  shorter  side  being  the  width  of  the  stroke  in 
length  and  the  longer  side  being  equal  to  the  distance  from 
2  c  to  3f.  The  tail  of  the  R  is  a  slanting  stroke ;  the  points 
of  contact  are  4  d  to  5f.  The  strokes  of  the  W  come  to  a 
point  on  line  a  to  correspond  with  the  M.  The  corner  of 
the  Z  is  beveled  off  at  about  the  same  angle  as  the  interior 
of  the  5  and  the  top  of  the  character  &.  The  long  slanting 
stroke  of  the  character  &  is  drawn  from  a  point  one-half  the 
width  of  the  stroke  to  the  left  and  below  1  a  to  a  point  one- 
half  the  width  of  the  stroke  to  the  right  of  4f.  The  corre- 
sponding, or  upper,  slanting  stroke,  from  its  top  to  the 
beginning  of  the  curve,  is  made  from  a  point  one-half  the 
width  of  the  stroke  to  the  right  and  below  4  a  to  a  point  2  d. 
The  other  slanting  stroke  intersects  the  long  stroke  the 
width  of  the  stroke  below  this  point  and  is  parallel  with  the 
upper  stroke,  finishing  on  line  c.  The  curve  by  which  these 
strokes  are  united  is  three-fourths  the  width  of  the  stroke  to 
the  left  of  line  1  at  e.  The  middle  bar  of  the  numeral  8  is 
beveled  at  a  slight  angle,  as  shown.  The  character  of  the 
numeral  5  is  changed  at  the  point  where  the  vertical  stroke 
joins  the  curved  bottom  portion  of  the  numeral  5.  The 
point  added  below  the  line  d  is  necessary  to  fill  out  the  space 
to  the  line  of  the  curve.  The  numerals  6,  8,  and  9  are  about 
one-third  the  width  of  the  stroke  wider  than  the  other  char- 
aracters,  but  are  similar  in  other  respects  to  the  same 
numerals  in  the  plain  Egyptian  alphabet. 

The  lower-case  letters  are,  in  many  respects,  the  same  as 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  65 

those  in  the  plain  Egyptian  alphabet,  although  many  excep- 
tions occur.  All  strokes  extending  above  the  line  a  are 
cut  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees,  to  which  the  spur  is  added 
at  the  same  angle.  This  characteristic  is  also  observable 
on  letters  of  shorter  height,  such  as  the  i,  j,  m,  n,  etc.,  but 
the  ends  of  the  strokes  of  all  letters  extending  below  the 
line  are  finished  without  this  detail. 


LIGHT  ANTIQUE  EGYPTIAN  ALPHABET. 

71.  The  difference  between  the  alphabet  shown  in  Fig.  37 
and  that  shown  in  Fig.  36  is  almost  entirely  in  the  weight 
of  the  stroke.  The  capital  letters  and  figures  of  this  alpha- 
bet are  one-fourth  higher  than  wide,  with  the  exception  of 
the  letters  A,  M,  O,  Q,  S,  W,  etc.,  which  are  wider  than  the 
others,  and  the  letters  /,  L,  and  N,  which  are  narrower. 

On  the  top  line  we  have,  in  A,  a  letter  whose  width  is 
equal  to  its  height,  and  in  /a  letter  whose  width  is  but  three 
thirty-seconds  its  height.  The  cross-bar  of  the  A  is  two  and 
two- thirds  strokes  above  the  bottom  line,  and  the  curved  line 
at  the  top  and  to  the  left  of  A  is  a  short  pen  or  brush  stroke 
termed  the  cyma,  on  account  of  its  resemblance  to  the  curve 
of  the  Greek  moldings  of  that  name.  The  purpose  of  the 
cyma  in  lettering  is  to  fill  the  space  between  the  slanting 
parts  of  the  letters,  or  extremities  of  letters  where  wide 
openings  are  likely  to  appear  where  the  letters  are  placed 
together.  It  is  also  used  as  an  integral  part  of  some  letters, 
as  in  the  Q  and  lower  part  of  the  Z.  In  other  styles  of 
lettering  the  cyma  is  freqiiently  used  as  a  structural  part  of 
many  letters,  particularly  in  the  Old  English  alphabet.  On 
the  letter  A  the  cyma  is  eight  strokes  in  length  and  is  located 
one  stroke  to  the  left  of  the  upper  point  of  the  A. 

The  letter  B  is  fashioned  so  that  its  lower  portion  to  the 
middle  of  bar  is  eight  strokes  above  the  bottom  line,  and 
projects  one  stroke  to  the  right  of  the  upper  portion.  As  far 
as  it  goes,  the  letter  C  is  a  perfect  arc  of  a  circle,  and  the  spur 
on  the  inside  is  about  two  strokes  from  the  top  line.  The 


10 


Of 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  67 

lower  extremity  of  the  letter  projects  a  stroke  beyond  the 
top  and  finishes  at  a  point  about  three  strokes  above  the 
lower  line.  The  right  side  of  the  letter  D  is  semicircular 
and  becomes  tangent  at  the  top  and  bottom  three  strokes  to 
the  right  of  the  vertical.  E,  F,  G,  and  H  each  possess  a 
middle  bar  that  is  located  four  strokes  below  the  top  of  the 
letter,  and  in  the  letters  E  and  F  this  middle  bar  extends  to 
within  three  strokes  of  the  right  extremity  of  the  letter.  In 
K  the  slanting  stroke  begins  three  strokes  above  the  lower 
line  and  extends  to  the  top  line  where  the  end  is  beveled  at 
an  angle  of  about  sixty  degrees.  The  letter  L  is  about  one 
stroke  narrower  than  the  other  letters,  and  the  cyma  is 
placed  over  it  so  that  its  lower  extremity  is  even  with  the 
right-hand  portion  of  the  letter/  M  is  two  strokes  wider 
than  the  other  letters,  and  in  some  cases  is  made  precisely 
like  an  inverted  W,  except  at  the  union  of  the  two  slanting 
strokes  where  the  letter  is  finished  flat  with  a  spur  instead  of 
being  pointed  as  in  the  W.  Here  the  middle  strokes  of  the 
M  are  brought  to  a  point  one-half  the  width  of  the  letter 
below  the  top  line.  The  slanting  stroke  of  the  TV  commences 
on  the  vertical  stroke  one-fourth  the  width  of  the  letter 
below  the  bottom  line.  The  loops  of  the  P  and  R  are  very 
different  in  style,  the  middle  bar  of  the  P  being  four  and 
two-thirds  strokes  from  the  bottom  line,  while  the  middle 
stroke  of  the  R  is  six  and  two- thirds  strokes  above  the  bottom 
line.  The  tail  of  the  R  intersects  the  middle  bar  at  a  point 
where  the  curve  becomes  tangent.  The  letter  5"  curves  in 
each  direction  from  a  point  in  the  center  of  the  letter  on  a 
line  with  the  middle  bar  of  the  R,  and  this  letter  is  narrower 
at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom  and  can  be  enclosed  in  an 
isosceles  triangle  whose  height  is  about  three  times  the 
height  of  the  letter.  The  W  is  precisely  the  same  as  two 
Ps  joined  at  a  point  two  and  two-thirds  strokes  below  the 
top  line.  The  vertical  stroke  of  the  F  extends  six  and  two- 
thirds  strokes  above  the  bottom  line,  the  letter  being  twelve 
strokes  wide  on  the  top.  The  X  is  nine  strokes  wide  on 
top  and  thirteen  strokes  wide  on  the  bottom.  The  letter  Z 
is  the  same  width  as  the  average  letters  on  top,  but  it  may 


I 
\ 

or 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  69 

be  finished  either  with  the  cyma  as  shown  here,  or  with  a  bot- 
tom corresponding  in  detail  to  the  top,  as  the  fancy  dictates. 
The  figures  are  of  the  average  width  of  the  letters,  the  3 
being  similar  to  the  S,  and  the  Z  to  the  7.  The  lower-case 
letters  are  easily  constructed,  as  shown. 


HEAVY  ANTIQUE  EGYPTIAN  ALPHABET. 

72.  The  style  of  letter  shown  in  Fig.  38  is  the  heavy 
extreme  of  the  Antique  Egyptian  style,  in  the  same  manner 
that  Fig.  37  was  the  light  extreme  of  this  style.  Between 
these  two  extremes  the  style  may  be  varied  to  almost  any 
extent,  .slight  variations  in  the  form  of  letter  being  necessary 
to  suit  the  different  conditions.  The  Heavy  Antique  Egyp- 
tian, however,  is  rarely  used  as  a  solid  black  letter  as  shown 
in  this  figure,  and  is  only  so  printed  here  in  order  to  preserve 
uniformity  in  the  alphabets. 

In  much  design  work  this  letter  is  found  in  simple  outline, 
and  though  extremely  bulky  on  account  of  the  weight  of  its 
stroke,  it  may  be  gracefully  handled  and  elaborately  orna- 
mented to  produce  a  most  pleasing  effect.  The  stroke  in 
the  Antique  Egyptian  alphabet  should  not  exceed  one-third 
the  full  width  of  the  average  letter,  which  is  the  extreme 
illustrated  in  this  case,  and  it  will  be  observed  that  with  this 
heavy  stroke  it  is  necessary  that  certain  letters,  such  as  the 
K,  S,  y,  W,  etc.,  be  carried  beyond  the  limiting  top  and 
bottom  lines,  in  order  that  the  full  outline  of  the  letter  may 
be  shown  without  confusion  of  parts.  In  some  places,  too, 
it  will  be  found  necessary  to  diminish  the  width  of  the  stroke 
in  order  to  leave  necessary  space  between  strokes,  and  other 
variations  may  be  indulged  to  suit  specific  circumstances. 


MEDIEVAL  ROMAN  ALPHABET. 

73.  This  style  of  letter,  by  many  authorities,  is  termed 
the  Antique  Roman,  but  it  belongs  to  the  historic  period 
indicated  by  its  name.  The  Medieval  Roman  alphabet  as 


w 


W 


EC> 


W£ 


RS 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  71 

shown  in  Fig.  39  possesses  three  distinct  and  characteristic 
features.  First,  there  is  a.  small  spur  that  projects  above 
and  below  the  lettering-  lines,  and  there  is  another  projection 
of  the  inside  line  of  the  stroke  beyond  the  fine  line  for  a 
distance  of  about  one-third  the  stroke,  as  in  the  top  of  the 
letter  A  and  the  bottom  of  the  letter  N\  and  besides  these, 
every  angle  between  a  stroke  and  a  fine  line  is  rounded. 
The  width  of  the  stroke  here  is  from  one-fourth  to  one-fifth 
the  height  of  the  letter,  and  the  spur  is  one  stroke  long  and 
is  joined  to  the  letter  one  stroke  above  the  bottom,  or  below 
the  top  line,  thus  making  the  curve  on  the  inside  an  exact 
quarter  circle. 

All  letters  average  five  strokes  in  width,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  such  letters  as  have  heretofore  been  described  as 
varying  from  the  regular  limits.  In  the  letter  A  the  fine 
line  intersects  the  stroke  at  the  point  of  the  letter,  and 
though  on  its  inside  the  stroke  is  carried  past  the  fine  line, 
the  intersection  takes  place  precisely  as  though  this  peculi- 
arity did  not  exist.  The  horizontal  fine  line  of  the  A  is  one 
and  one-fourth  strokes  above  the  bottom  of  the  letter. 


IiIGIIT  AND  HEAVY  FRENCH  ROMAN  ALPHABET. 

74.  In  modern  usage  the  Roman  alphabet  is  varied 
somewhat  to  suit  certain  purposes.  One  of  these  variations, 
called  the  "New  York  Roman,"  adheres  in  outline  very 
closely  to  the  original  Medieval  form  with  the  exception  of 
the  projecting  spur  of  the  stroke  beyond  the  fine  line. 
Another  variation,  known  as  the  "French  Roman,"  differs 
from  its  prototype  by  increasing  the  weight  of  the  fine  line 
in  order  that  it  may  be  better  expressed  in  carved  stone- 
work, etc.  The  variations  of  these  three  styles,  from  an 
extremely  light  letter  to  an  extremely  heavy  letter,  is  prac- 
ticed by  all  designers,  but  the  similarity  is  such  that  we  only 
give  the  normal  conditions  of  the  Medieval  Roman  and 
extreme  conditions  of  the  French. 

In  Fig.  40  is  shown  the  Light  French  Roman  alphabet, 


E 
O 

IL, 


E 

I 

IL 


Q 

(D 

CD 


- 


- 


74  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

and  this  fills  the 
same  position  in 
the  variation  of  the 
alphabet  as  the 
Light  Antique 
Egyptian.  In  giv- 
ing the  letter 
weight,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  41,  certain 
liberties  are  taken 
with  the  fine  lines, 
as  shown  in  the 
lower  strokes  of 
the  E,  L,  and  Z. 

In  using  these 
Roman  alphabets, 
care  must  be  taken 
to  have  the  lower- 
case letters  well 
proportioned  in  the 
weights  of  their 
strokes  with  the 
capitals  that  are 
used.  In  Fig.  42 
are  shown  the 
lower  -  case  letters 
of  the  French 
Roman  and  the 
Medieval  Roman 
alphabets,  the 
former,  it  will  be 
observed,  possess- 
ing a  much  heav- 
ier stroke.  These 
lower-case  letters 
in  Fig.  42  are  pro- 
portioned for  the 
normal  condition 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  75 

of  alphabet,  and  where  used  with  the  heavy  or  light 
alphabet,  they  must  be  increased  or  diminished  in  stroke 
accordingly.  The  use  of  the  Roman  numerals  with  these 
alphabets  is  by  no  means  essential,  but  the  numerals  are 
given  here  in  order  that  the  proportionate  stroke  may  be 
observed.  There  are  many  cases  where  the  use  of  the 
Medieval  Roman  alphabet  is  appropriate  beyond  all  other 
alphabets,  and  it  is  usual  that  in  such  cases  the  Roman 
numerals  be  used. 


GOTHIC  ALPHABET. 

75.  The  style  of  letter  we  term  "  Gothic"  was  designed 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  Medieval  period  and  is  asso- 
ciated both  historically  and  architecturally  with  the  style  of 
Gothic  architecture  that  existed  during  the  Flamboyant 
period  in  France  and  the  Perpendicular  period  in  England. 
In  modern  use  this  letter  is  largely  applied  to  church  deco- 
ration for  the  purpose  of  making  religious  quotations,  and  is 
also  used  in  printing  for  certain  kinds  of  literature  on 
account  of  its  origin  in  ancient  monasteries.  It  is  similar 
but  much  more  easily  read  than  what  we  term  "Church 
Text,"  and  is,  therefore,  given  here  to.  the  exclusion  of  the 
latter,  as  it  is  much  more  serviceable. 

In  Fig.  43  the  capital  and  lower-case  letters,  as  well  as 
the  figures,  are  shown,  and  the  distinguishing  characteristics 
of  this  style  lie  in  the  peculiar  formation  of  the  letters 
A,  C,  E,  F,  //, /,  and  U.  The  letters  A,  ^[,  .V,  etc.  do  not 
possess  any  slanting  strokes  as  they  do  in  the  Roman 
alphabets,  but  are  formed  with  a  vertical  stroke  as  one  of 
their  sides  and  curved  strokes  for  the  rest  of  the  outline. 
The  letters  C  and  R  are  closed  on  their  right  sides  by  a 
vertical  line  ending  in  small  dots  or  volutes,  the  line  on  /: 
being  longer  than  that  on  the  C.  The  Fis  similar  in  gen- 
eral outline  to  the  capital  F  oi  the  Roman  styles,  but  carries 
its  spur  on  the  upper  fine  line  below  the  bottom  of  the 
letter  itself.  The  capital  //is  but  slightly  varied  from  the 
lower-case  //,  and  they  is  peculiar  in  its  general  details  to 


H 


a 

F* 

tn 


CO 


B 


5 


W.M 


U 


0 


3D 


ft  w  0 

fc 


E 


^ 


Stf* 


*9 

w 


V 
& 

0 


> 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  79 

this  style  of  alphabet.  Other  details  of  peculiarity  exhibit 
themselves  to  the  student  as  he  studies  this  style.  This 
letter  is  frequently  elaborated  in  certificate  and  engrossing 
work,  by  means  of  shading  and  elaborate  backgrounds,  and 
some  proportions  of  the  letters  may  be  slightly  changed  in 
order  to  suit  them  to  particular  circumstances. 

A  later  development  of  this  alphabet  is  shown  in  Fig.  44, 
where  the  letters  A,  M,  N,  etc.  partake  of  the  same  char- 
acteristics as  the  Roman  letter,  while  the  peculiar  ogival 
form  of  outline  characteristic  of  the  Gothic  style  is  main- 
tained in  all  of  the  curves  in  the  stroke.  A  strong  character- 
istic difference,  however,  between  the  alphabet  in  Fig.  43 
and  that  in  Fig.  44  is  that  in  the  former  all  the  fine  lines 
are  straight  and  in  the  latter  all  of  the  fine  lines  are  curved, 
except  in  the  A,  K,  M,  etc.  This  style  of  letter,  usually 
termed  "10th  Century,"  is  suitable  where  more  elaboration 
is  required  than  the  Gothic  style  permits,  and  is  seldom  used 
for  church  work  as  it  is  associated  with  that  period  of  archi 
tecture  when  the  building  of  churches  was  in  its  decline. 

Another  style  of  letter  that  had  its  origin,  also,  in  the 
Gothic  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  45  and  is  termed  "  Henry  VII  " 
inasmuch  as  the  only  existing  example  of  this  work  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  Henry  VII  Chapel  at  Westminster  Abbey.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  this  is  technically  a  Renaissance  style, 
although  like  all  early  Renaissance  art  it  developed  from 
the  Gothic.  The  tendency  to  elaboration  and  the  intro- 
duction of  meaningless  curves  and  forms  is  characteristic  of 
this  period,  but  the  style  of  alphabet  when  properly  treated 
affords  a  very  valuable  means  of  enriching  a  design  that  is 
composed  almost  entirely  of  lettering  work. 


OTVD  EXGT.TSII  ALPHABET. 

7(>.  A  standard  alphabet  that  has  ever  been  popular 
and  is  ever  serviceable  under  certain  conditions  is  the  Old 
English,  shown  in  Fig.  40.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
this  bears  a  close  relation  to  the  Gothic  alphabet,  and, 


V  ts 

-^        ^M^M^. 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  81 

indeed,  its  lower-case  letters  are  very  similar  to  the  Gothic; 
and,  though  it  is  much  used  in  church  work  and  in  the 
designing  of  certificates  and  other  engrossed  documents,  it 
is  not  as  legible  as  the  Gothic  alphabet  and  is  more  suitable 
for  conditions  where  ornamentation  is  required  rather  than 
clear  information. 

It  will  be  observed  in  this  alphabet  that  the  cyma  forms  a 
marked  characteristic  in  each  of  the  letters.  For  instance, 
in  the  letter  E  nearly  all  the  strokes  are  composed  of  at 
least  a  portion  of  the  cyma.  Certain  letters  are  very  hard 
to  distinguish  from  one  another  in  this  alphabet,  and  care 
should  be  taken  to  remember  the  distinguishing  character- 
istics of  each  in  order  that  they  may  be  rendered  without 
referring  constantly  to  the  copy.  In  some  forms  of  alphabet, 
the  C  and  the  E  are  almost  identical,  the  exception  between 
the  two  letters  being  that  the  E  contains  a  solid  stroke  where 
the  two  horizontal  fine  lines  exist  in  the  C.  We  think  it 
preferable,  however,  to  use  the  form  of  E  shown  in  Fig.  46, 
although  this  is  somewhat  confusing  when  compared  with 
the  F.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  vertical  stroke  of  the  F 
is  a  straight  stroke  and  not  a  cyma  as  in  the  £,  and  that  a 
fine  line  connecting  the  upper  spur  of  the  F  with  the  main 
stroke  is  straight  instead  of  a  curved  continuation  of  a  cyma 
as  in  the  letter  E.  T  and  U  are  also  difficult  to  distinguish 
in  some  styles  of  alphabet,  and  study  should  be  given  to  the 
formation  of  the  /  and  J  in  order  that  they  may  not  become 
confusing. 

A  little  consideration  of  these  letters  will  show  the  student 
that  there  are  only  three  or  four  different  styles  of  stroke 
and  that  many  different  letters  are  formed  simply  by  the 
addition  of  some  detail  of  other  letters.  For  instance,  the 
letter  E  differs  but  slightly  from  the  letter  L,  except  in  the 
addition  of  its  center  spur,  and  the  left-hand  portion  of  the 
letter  M  is  almost  identical  with  the  letter  /.  Similar 
resemblances  will  be  found  in  many  other  letters,  such  as 
the  Q,  R,  etc. ,  and  the  Z,  though  shown  on  this  plate  with 
a  compound  final  stroke,  is  often  drawn  with  a  top  and  bot- 
tom of  the  same  character. 


83  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

The  lower-case  letters  are  similar  to  the  lower-case  letters 
of  the  Gothic  alphabet,  except  that  they  are  somewhat 
heavier  in  their  stroke,  but  for  all  practical  purposes  the  two 
styles  are  so  near  alike  in  their  lower  case  that  one  is  fre- 
quently used  with  the  other  without  invoking  any  severe 
criticism. 

77.  In  making  use  of  these  alphabets  in  design,  it  has 
been   customary    to   associate   all    the    Roman    styles   with 
Classic  and  Renaissance  art  and  to  use  the  Gothic  and  "16th 
Century"  with  Medieval  art;  while  the  Henry  VII  and  Old 
English  are  used  both  in  Medieval  and  Renaissance  art. 
There  are  cases  where  one  style  of  letter  may  be  used  per- 
fectly proper  in  another  style  of  art,  but  care  must  be  given 
to  this  consideration  when  the  mixture  of  styles  is  attempted, 
as  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  there  is  nothing  particularly 
incongruous  about  using  the  Roman  letter  in  Renaissance 
art,  or  even  in  Gothic  art,  but  a  Gothic  letter  would  be  highly 
out  of  place  in  Classic  art  no  matter  what  were  the  circum- 
stances.    The  reason  for  this  should  be  clear,  as  the  Gothic 
architect  might  have  inherited  some  knowledge  of  the  Roman 
letter  and  used  it  in  his  designs,  but  it  would  be  utterly 
impossible  for  the  Roman  designer  to  borrow  a  letter  of  the 
Gothic  style  inasmuch  as  that  letter  had  not  been  invented 
during  the  period  of  the  Roman  architectural  styles. 

78.  The  initial  letters  that  are  woven  in  many  of  the 
designs  of  French  Renaissance  art  usually  tend  toward  the 
character  of  the  French  Roman,  and  the  interwoven  initials 
of  H  and  C  in  the  wall  decoration  shown  in  Fig.  32  are 
borrowed  from  the  style  we  have  herein  described  as  French 
Roman,  and  comparison  of  other  initials  that  will  be  found 
carved  in  the  stonework  of  the   mantels  illustrated  in  the 
foregoing  pages  will  indicate  that  they  have  all  been  adapted 
to  their  modern  purpose  from  the  more  ancient  style  of 
classic  letter. 


A  SERIES 


OK 


QUESTIONS 

RKLATING  TO  THE  SUBJECTS 
TREATED  OE  IN  THIS  VOLUME. 


It  will  be  noticed  that  the  various  Question  Papers  that 
follow  have  been  given  the  same  section  numbers  as  the 
Instruction  Papers  to  which  they  refer.  No  attempt  should 
be  made  to  answer  any  of  the  questions  until  the  Instruc- 
tion Paper  having  the  same  section  number  as  the  Question 
Paper  in  which  the  questions  occur  has  been  carefully 
studied. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 

(PART  1.) 


(1)  (a)  How  many  types  of  people  were  there  among  the 
Egyptians  ?    (b)  Describe  each. 

(2)  What  natural  types  are  found  in  Assyrian  ornament  ? 

(3)  (a)  How  many   moldings  are  there  in  Greek  archi- 
tecture ?    (b)  Make  a  sketch  of  the  outline  of  each  molding, 
with  its  name  under  it.     (These  outlines  should  be  about 
1  inch  high. ) 

(4)  (a)  Who  were  the  Etruscans?    (b)  What  nation  was 
largely  affected  by  their  art  ?    (c]  What  class  of  work  did 
they  excel  in  ? 

(5)  (a]  What  two  plant  forms  play  a  conspicuous  part  in 
Egyptian  ornament  ?    (b)    Make  a  sketch  of  either  one  of 
them  and  describe  the  other  one. 

(6)  How  is  Assyrian  sculptured  ornament  inferior  to  the 
Egyptian  ? 

(7)  State  the  difference  between  ornament  and  decoration. 

(8)  (a}  What  is    the    winged    disk  ?    (/>)    What   does    it 
.signify  ?    (c)    To  what  style  of  ornament   docs  it  belong  ? 
(if]  Of  what  class  of  ornament  is  it  ? 

('.))     Make  a    sketch,   about  2   inches  high,    showing  the 
Assyrian  rendering  of  the  Egyptian  lotus. 

§3 

For  notice  of  the  copyright,  see  page  immediately  following  the  title  page. 


2  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

(10)  (a)  Where   is   the    torus  molding  most  frequently 
used  ?       (b]    Where    is    the    echinus    molding    most    fre- 
quently used  ?     (c]  Where  is  the  cyma  recta  most  freqtiently 
used  ? 

(11)  What  is  meant  by  the  term  conventionalism  ? 

(12)  (a)  What    is  a    scarabaeus  ?    (ft)  To   what   style    of 
ornament  does  it  belong  ? 

(13)  What   great   geographical    differences    were    there 
between  Greece  and  Egypt  ? 

(14)  What  is  the  principal  Greek  building  in  the  Doric 
order  ? 

(15)  (a)    Should  a  floral  design  on  a  textile  fabric  be  as 
close    an    imitation    of    the   natural   plant   as   is   possible  ? 
(6)  Why? 

(16)  Into    what    three    classes    is    Egyptian    ornament 
divided  ? 

(17)  Describe  the  character  of  the  Greeks  as  a  nation. 

(18)  Make  a  drawing  2  inches  high  of  the  Greek   anthe- 
mion. 

(19)  How  should  color  be  used  in  decorative  design  ? 

(20)  Describe  Egyptian  carved  ornament. 

(21)  How   does   Greek   art    differ  from    Egyptian    and 
Assyrian  art  ? 

(22)  Make  a  drawing  2  inches  high  of  the  Greek  lily. 

(23)  What  was  the   origin  of  the  fixed  styles  of  orna- 
ment? 

(24)  Describe  the  preparation  of  a  bcdy  for  burial,  as 
practiced  among  the  ancient  Egyptians. 


§  3  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  3 

(25)  (a)  In  what  does  the  beauty  of  Greek  ornament  lie 
most  largely  ?    (b)  What  characteristic  that  is  prominent  in 
Egyptian  art  does  it  lack  ? 

(26)  What  is  a  guilloche  ? 

(27)  Of  what  advantage  is  the   study   of  historic  orna- 
ment ? 

(28)  What  is  the  scroll  ornament,  as  seen  in  Egyptian 
art,  considered  to  be  symbolic  of  ? 

(29)  To  what  do  the  leaves  of  the  Greek  flowers  owe 
their  form  and  shape  ? 

(30)  What  is  polychromy  t 

(31)  What  natural  phenomenon  had  a  marked  effect  on 
Egyptian  ornament  ? 

(32)  Make  a  sketch,  about  2  inches  by  3  inches,  of  charac- 
teristic Egyptian  ornament  based  on  a  combination  of  circles 
and  ornamented  with  lotus-flower  devices. 

(33)  What  are  the  three  great  laws  of  nature  observed  by 
the  Greek  artist  in  his  ornament  ? 

(34)  Describe  the  colors  used,  and  the  location  of  each, 
in  the  Grecian- Doric  order. 

(35)  What  peculiarity  does  Egyptian  ornament  possess 
over  all  other  styles  ? 

(36)  (a)    What  colors  were  used  in  Egyptian  ornament  ? 
(b)  Why  was  it  necessary  to  use  bright  colors  ? 

(37)  (a)  What  are  antefixae;  and  (V)  from  what  derived  ? 

(38)  (rt)  What  are  the  three  Greek  orders  ?    (/>)    What  is 
the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  each  ? 


4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  3 

(39)  From  what  country  was  the  ornament  of  Assyria 
borrowed  ? 

(40)  What  is  a  propylon  ? 

(41)  How  are  the  contours  of  Greek  moldings  profiled  ? 

(42)  What  objects   standing  in   front   of   the    Egyptian 
temples  are  characteristic  of  this  style  of  art  ? 

(43)  Draw  a  hyperbola. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 

(PART  2.) 


(1)  What  great  religious  difference  existed  between  the 
Arabs  and  the  Persians  ? 

(2)  What  other  nations  carry-  out  the  same  principles  of 
surface  decoration  that  we  find  in  Indian  art  ? 

(3)  In   painted    Byzantine  ornament,  of   what  does   the 
ground  almost  universally  consist  ? 

(4)  (a)  Romanesque  ornament  in   Eastern  Europe  was 
affected  by  the  art  of  what  other  countries  ?     (^)  Into  what 
style    of    art    did    the    Romanesque    develop    under    this 
influence  ? 

(5)  What  is  a  modilliou  ? 

(6)  What  products  of  Persian  design  are  still  considered 
the  finest  in  the  world  ? 

(7)  What  is  the  relationship  that  exists  between  Byzan- 
tine and  Arabian  ornament  ? 

(8)  What   is    the    relative   importance   of    sculpture   in 
Byzantine  and  Romanesque  art  ? 

(9)  Why  is  the  distinction    between  Roman  and  Greek 
art  so  much  more  clearly  marked  than  that  between  Byzan- 
tine and  Romanesque  ? 

H 

For  notice  of  the  copyright,  see  page  immediately  following  the  title  page. 


2  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

(10)  (a)  What   is   the   essential  difference  between  the 
Roman-Corinthian  order  and  the  Roman-Composite  order? 
(b)  For   what   reason  was  the  Composite   order   originally 
designed  ? 

(11)  What  are  the  characteristics  of  Celtic  ornament  ? 

(12)  From  what  did  the  Moorish  style  spring  ? 

(13)  What   are    the    restrictions    of    the    Mohammedan 
religion  in  relation  to  decorative  design  ? 

(14)  What  is  the   relation  of  mosaic  work  and  painted 
work  in  Byzantine  and  Romanesque  art  ? 

(15)  (a)  What  is  the  earliest  monument  in  the  Byzantine 
style?     (b)  When  was  it  built  ? 

(16)  What  is  the  difference  between  the  treatment  of  the 
acanthus  leaves  at  the  top  of  a  Roman- Corinthian  column 
and  the  lotus  leaves  at  the  top  of  an  Egyptian  column  ? 

(17)  What  is  the   principal  building  in   Moorish  archi- 
tecture ? 

(18)  What  peculiar   personal  characteristics  of  the  ori- 
ental people  affect  the  progress  of  their  arts  ? 

(19)  (a)  What  building  stands  as  prominently  character- 
istic of  Byzantine  art  as  the  Parthenon  does  of  Greek  art  ? 
(b)  For  what  is  the  building  now  used  ? 

(20)  What  is  the  essential  characteristic   of  all  Roman 
ornament  ? 

(21)  What  characteristic  does  Moorish  ornament  lack  ? 

(22)  To  what  can  we  trace  the  predominance  of  geomet- 
rical ornament  in  all  Mohammedan  designs  ? 

(23)  Aside  from  coloring,  what  is  the  first  element  of 
beauty  in  Chinese  art  ? 


§  4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  3 

(24)  *  Make  a  sketch  of  a  Byzantine  capital. 

(25)  At  the  time  of  its  fall,  how  much  of  the  continent 
of  Europe  did  the  Roman  Empire  cover  ? 

(26)  (a)  What  colors  were  used  by  the  Moors,  and  (b}  how 
were  they  arranged  in  wall  treatment,  to  accord  with  natural 
laws  ? 

(27)  Describe  the  capitals  of  the  columns  in  (a)  the  Early 
English  period;  (b)  the  Decorated  period;  (c)  the  Perpen- 
dicular period. 

(28)  *  Make  a  sketch  of  Arabian  geometrical  ornament 
suitable  for  mosaic  work. 

(29)  In  Indian  woven  fabrics,  what  rules  are  observed 
under  the  following  conditions :  (a)  How  are  colored  grounds 
treated  when  gold  ornaments  are  used,  or  where  gold  is  used 
in  large  masses  ?     (b}   How  is  the  ground  treated  when  gold 
ornament  is  used  alone  ?     (c)  When  ornaments  of  one  color 
are  used  on  a  ground  of  a  contrasting  color,  what  is  the 
general  rule  ?     (d)  When  colored  ornaments  are  used  on  a 
gold   ground,    how   are   they   separated    sharply   from   the 
ground  ? 

(30)  *  Make  a  sketch  of  Byzantine  running  ornament  or 
surface  decoration. 

(31)  What  conditions  gave  rise  to  the  Romanesque  style  ? 

(32)  *  Make  a  sketch  of  Moorish  geometrical  interlaced 
ornament. 

(33)  What  was  the  first  Mohammedan  nation  to  adopt 
European  fashions  in  architecture  ? 

(34)  Why  are  examples  of  Byzantine  art,  as  found  on 
(rreek  soil,  usually  purer  in  style  than  others? 


*  All  sketches  are  to  be  about  2  inches  square. 


4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  4 

(35)  (a)  In    what    year    occurred    the    fall    of    Rome  ? 
(b}  How  did   this  affect  the   art  of  Eastern  and  Western 
Europe  ? 

(36)  In    what     monuments     was     Roman    art     mostly 
expressed  ? 

(37)  In  what  class  of  work  do  we  find  the  only  ornament 
that  is  strictly  Turkish  in  character  ? 

(38)  What  object  appears  to  have  been  maintained  in 
the    woven   fabric   of    Indian   manufacture   concerning  the 
definition  of  each  object,  and  the  effect  of  colored  objects 
viewed  at  a  distance  ? 

(39)  What  are  the  characteristics  of   Byzantine  carved 
ornament  ? 

(40)  What  was  the  period  of  highest  development  in  all 
architecture  ? 

(41)  What  structural   problem  underlies  the  system  of 
Romanesque  design  ? 

(42)  Why  was  modification  necessary  when  the  Romans 
adopted  the  Greek  orders  ? 

(43)  (a)  Can  the  designs  observable  in  Turkish  carpets 
be  considered  characteristic  Turkish  designs  ?     (b}  Why  ? 

(44)  *  Make  a  sketch  of  the  capital  of  an  early  Roman- 
esque column. 

(45)  (a)  Name  the  five  orders  of  architecture,     (b)  Which 
of  these  are  essentially  Roman  ? 

(40)     What  arc   the    most  prominent   colors   in    Turkish 
ornament  ? 

*  All  sketches  are  to  be  about  2  inches  square. 


§  4  .       HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  5 

(47)  How   do   Byzantine    mosaics    differ    from    Roman 
mosaics  ? 

(48)  Why  are  Romanesque  forms  so  simple  ? 

(49)  In  what  colors  do  modern  Turkish  ornament  and 
ancient  Turkish  ornament  differ  ? 

(50)  Give  the  characteristics  (a)  of  the  Greek-Ionic  order; 
(b)  of  the  Roman- Doric  order. 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 

(PART  3.) 


(1)  Into  what  four  styles  can  French  furniture  be  divided 
after  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  ? 

(2)  What  are  the  characteristic  differences  between  the 
feudal  castle  and  the  Renaissance  chateau  ? 

(3)  What  effect  did  the  invention  of  printing  and  the 
printing  press  have  on  the  development  of  Renaissance  art  ? 

(4)  Execute  your  name  in   letters  of   the  Old   English 
alphabet. 

(5)  (a)  Make    a    sketch   of  some   heraldic  device  char- 
acteristic of  Francis  I  period;  (b)  Henry  II  period. 

(6)  Describe  the  furniture  of  the  Louis  XIV  period. 

(7)  What  is  the  largest  and  most  important  of  the  French 
chateaux  ? 

(8)  What    is    meant    by    (a)  basso    rilievo  ?     (b}  mezzo 
rilievo  ?    (c)  alto  rilievo?     (d)  By   whom,  were    they   first 
practiced  ? 

(9)  Describe  the  decorations  of   the  molded  work  and 
panels  in  the  three  periods  of  English  architecture. 

(10)  Make  a  sketch,  2  inches  square,  showing  an  example 
of  Celtic  interlaced  work. 

§5 

For  notice  of  the  copyright,  see  page  immediately  following  the  title  page. 


2  HLSTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

(11)  Describe  the  furniture  of  the  Louis  XV  period. 

(12)  What  idea  did  the   French  artists  conceive  of   the 
Romans'  use  of  the  Greek  orders  ? 

(13)  What  great  painting  did  Michael  Angelo  execute  in 
1541? 

(14)  Describe    the  diapers   and  wall   decorations  of   the 
three  periods  of  English  art. 

(15)  Where  do  we  find  the  purest  forms  of  Gothic  orna- 
ment ? 

(16)  Describe  the  furniture  of  the  Louis  XVI  period. 

(17)  What  was  the  heraldic  device  of  Francis  I  ? 

(18)  What  two  famous  statues  did  Michael  Angelo  design 
for  Pope  Julius  II  ? 

(19)  Print  the  title  "Historic Ornament "  in  letters  of  the 
Medieval  Roman  alphabet. 

(20)  What  are  the  characteristics  of  Early  English  archi- 
tecture ? 

(21)  Describe  the  interior  decorations  of  the  Louis  XVI 
period. 

(22)  What  was  the  heraldic  device  of  Louis  XII  ? 

(23)  What   are   the   characteristics  expressed   in   all   of 
Michael  Angelo's  works  ? 

(24)  What  are  the  three  periods  of  Gothic  architecture  in 
France  ? 

(25)  What    are    the    three    periods    of    English-Gothic 
ornament  ? 

(26)  In  what  way  did  Albert  Durer  influence  the  tastes 
in  German  Renaissance  ? 


§  5  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  3 

(27)  What  heraldic  device  was  sometimes  used  by  Anne 
of  Brittany? 

(28)  What  building  was  Michael  Angelo  employed  upon 
as  architect  when  he  died  ? 

(29)  What  other  buildings  than  churches  formed  a  large 
portion  of  the  Gothic   architecture  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury ? 

(30)  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Decorated  period 
of  English  architecture  ? 

(31)  (a)  What  monument,  in  England,  marks  the  intro- 
duction of  Renaissance  into  that  country  ?     (/5>)  What  year 
was  it  erected  ? 

(32)  In    French    heraldry,    of    what    was    the    dolphin 
indicative  ? 

(33)  Why  was  the  transition  from  Gothic  to  Renaissance 
much  more  rapid  in  France  than  anywhere  else  ? 

(34)  Describe  the  feudal  system. 

(35)  What  are  the  characteristics  of   the  Perpendicular 
period  of  English-Gothic  architecture  ? 

(36)  What  Dutch  architect  designed  a  number  of  college 
gates  in  England  ? 

(37)  What  animal  was  used  in  heraldic  devices,  indicative 
of  Anne  of  Brittany  ? 

(38)  Into    what    three   periods  is   French    Renaissance 
divided  ? 

(39)  How  were  the  rooms   heated  in  the  early  feudal 
castles  ? 

(40)  What  are  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  Italian- 
Gothic  architecture  ? 


4  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.  §  5 

(41)  What     are     the     characteristics     of     Elizabethan 
ornament  ? 

(42)  What  two  palaces  near  Paris  became  popular  with 
the  royal  family  toward  the  decline  of  the  Renaissance.? 

(43)  What  class  of  buildings  best  expresses  the  transition 
from  Gothic  to  Renaissance  in  French  architecture  ? 

(44)  Describe  the  influences    that   affected   Renaissance 
architecture  in  Italy,  France,  and  England. 

(45)  What  is  the  purpose  in  studying  historic  ornament  ? 


INDEX. 


NOTE. — All  items  in  this  index  refer  first  to  the  section  (see  Preface,  Vol.  I)  and  then 
to  the  page  of  the  section.  Thus,  "  Lotus  3  26  "  means  that  lotus  will  be  found  on  page 
26  of  section  8. 


A.  Sec. 

Abacus 4 

Acanthus,  Roman 4 

Adherence  to  old  designs 5 

Albert  Durer 5 

Alhambra 4 

Alphabet,  Antique  Egyptian 5 

"          French  Roman 5 

"          Gothic 5 

"          Heavy  antique  Egyp- 
tian   5 

"          Light  antique  Egyp- 
tian    5 

"          Medieval  Roman 5 

"          Old  English 5 

Alto  rilievo 5 

Analysis  of  plants 2 

Ancient  art 3 

"       castles,  Heating  of 4 

"  "        Mode   of  living 

in 4 

"        ornament 3 

Angle,  How  to  bisect  an 1 

"           "     "  lay  off  an 1 

Animal  forms  in  Celtic  ornament  4 

Annulets 4 

An  tefixae 8 

Anthemion 8 

Antique  art,  Revival  of,  in  Eng- 
land   5 

"        Egyptian  alphabet 5 

"        Egyptian    alphabet. 

Heavy 5 

"        Egyptian     alphabet, 

Light 5 

Antiquity  of  Egyptian  ornament  8 

Apophyge 4 

Applied  Design,  Drawing  plate. .  2 
Arabian   and   Persian  art  com- 
pared   4 

"         art 4 

"         "    Mohammedanism  in  4 

"        coloring 4 

"        ornament 4 


Page. 
8 
31 
57 
51 
81 
63 

ri 

75 


65 
69 
79 

7 
44 

9 
126 

126 
9 

83 
86 
% 
5 
76 
67 

55 
63 


Sec.  Page. 


Arabian  ornament,  Development 
of... 


Arc,  How  to  find  the  center  of. .  1 
"     of   circle    equal    to    given 

straight  line,  How  to  find  1 
Architectural  development, 

Zenith  of 4 

"            orders 3 

Architecture,  Chinese,  Scarcity 

of 4 

"             Classic 4 

Conditions    influ- 
encing   3 

"            Five  orders  of 4 

"            Greek 3 

"            Influences  of 3 

Architrave 4 

"         Ionic 4 

Art,  Ancient 3 

"    and  literature,  Italian 5 

"    Assyrian 3 

"           "         Development  of...  3 

"    Byzantine 4 

"    Celtic 4 

"    Chinese 4 

"      Standard    forms    in  4 

"    Classic...  4 


Comparison  of  Persian  and 

Arabian 4 

Comparison  of  Persian  and 

Indian 4 

Decorative 8 

Egyptian 8 

Etruscan 3 

French  Gothic 4 

"        Heraldry  in 5 

Gothic 4 

"        Evolution  of 4 

"        in  Italy 4 

"        Influence  of  religion 

in 4 

Greco-Roman S 


38 
42 

115 

58 

61 
2 

5 

2 

54 

4 

6 

13 

9 

5 

47 

47 

39 

95 

59 

02 

1 

52 

78 

79 
6 
14 

116 
34 
99 
99 

106 

99 
79 


Vll 


Yin 


INDEX. 


Sec. 

Page. 

Sec. 

Page. 

Art,  Greek  

3 

52 

Byzantine  ornament,  Ingenuity 

"    Indian  

4 

64 

of  

4 

55 

"        "       Lack  of  progressive- 

"          Origin  of.  .. 

4 

39 

ness  in  

4 

64 

"          style,  Examples  of  — 

4 

42 

"    Influences  affecting   differ- 

ent styles  of  

5 

50 

C. 

Sec. 

Page. 

"    Japanese  

4 

5!) 

Capital,  Corinthian  

4 

15 

"            "         

4 

63 

Capitals,  decorated,    Character- 

"   Moorish  

4 

80 

istics  of  

4 

109 

"            "       Construction     and 

"          early  English,  Charac- 

decoration in  

4 

83 

teristics  of  

4 

109 

"       Derivation  of  

4 

80 

"             "       French  

4 

116 

"       Primary  colors  in..  . 

4 

85 

"          Flamboyant  

4 

117 

"     Oriental  

4 

59 

"          perpendicular,  Charac- 

"   Persian  

4 

78 

teristics  of  

4 

110 

"     Pompeian  

3 

79 

"          Ravonnant  

4 

117 

"    Renaissance  

5 

1 

Cartouch,  Construction  of  

2 

26 

"               "            in  Italy  

5 

3 

"          Definition  of  

2 

26 

"            Origin  of  

u 

1 

Castle  of  Coucy  -.  

4 

123 

"    Roman  influences  on  Italian 

5 

6 

Castles,  ancient,  Heating  of  

4 

126 

"    Romanesque  

4 

33 

"             "         Mode  of  living 

"     Sculpture  in  Byzantine  

4 

58 

in  

4 

126 

"  Romanesque.. 

4 

58 

"       and  chateaux  

5 

26 

"    Turkish  

4 

76 

Cathedral  of  Monreale  

4 

55 

"    Western  

4 

95 

Cauliculi  

4 

16 

Asiatic  ornament  

4 

59 

Cavetto  

3 

63 

Assembly,  Hall  of  

3 

17 

Ceiling  decoration,  Byzantine... 

4 

47 

Assyrian  art  

3 

47 

Celtic  art  

4 

95 

"  Development  of  

3 

47 

"      ornament  

4 

95 

"          ornament  

3 

47 

"               "        Animal    forms 

"          s'culpture  

3 

48 

in  

4 

06 

Athena  Polias,  Temple  of  

3 

70 

"               "        Characteristics 

"            "               "         "  

4 

9 

of  

4 

96 

Attic  base  

4 

12 

"               "        Intricacy  of  

4 

97 

(Vxis,  Definition  of  

1 

35 

"               "        Origin  of  

4 

95 

"               "        Symbolism  in.  .. 

4 

98 

li. 

Sec. 

Page. 

Characteristics    of    Celtic  orna- 

Ball-flower ornament  

4 

101 

ment  

4 

96 

Base,  Attic  

4 

12 

"                  "    decorated 

"     Corinthian  

4 

16 

capitals... 

4 

110 

Bases,  Greek  

3 

59 

"                 "    early  Eng- 

Basso rilievo  

5 

7 

lish  capi- 

Blending   of    colors    in  Moorish 

tals  

4 

109 

ornament  

4 

91 

"                 "    Elizabethan 

Blois,  Chateau  de  

5 

28 

ornament 

5 

54 

"       Staircase  of  Chateau  de.  .  . 

5 

31 

"                  "    Indian  orna- 

Bourbon penod  

5 

25 

ment  

4 

65 

Bow-pen  

1 

9 

"                  "    Moorish   or- 

"     pencil  

1 

9 

nament.  .  . 

4 

81 

Brushes,  Japanese  

2 

53 

"                  "Oriental 

Brush  Work,  Drawing  plate  

2 

51 

people.... 

4 

59 

Bv/.antine  art  

4 

39 

"                  "    perpendicu- 

" Ornamental    influ- 

lar capi- 

ence in  

4 

39 

tals  

4 

110 

"  Sculpture  in  

4 

58 

"    Persian  o  r- 

"           ceiling  decoration  

4 

47 

nament.  .. 

4 

78 

"           decoration  

4 

47 

"                 "    Roman    or- 

"         ornament....          .... 

4 

39 

nament.  .  . 

4 

31 

INDEX. 


IX 


Sec. 


Characteristics   of  the  Greeks.. 

"  "Turkish 

ornament 

Chateau  de  Blois 

"         "      "    Octagonal  stair- 
case in 

"          "       "    Wall  decoration 

in 

Chateaux  and  castles 

Chinese  architecture,  Scarcity  of 
"       art,  Standard  forms  in.. 

"       coloring 

"       ornament 

"          and  idealism. . 
"  "          Primitiveness 

of 

Church,  Influence  of 

"       of  St.  Mark 

Circle,  How  to  draw,  freehand.. 
"           "      "  inscribe   a  hexa- 
gon  

Circles,  Perspective  of 

Classes  of  Egyptian  ornament.. 

Classic  architecture 

"     art... 


moldings., 
ornament. 


"      style,  Revival  of 

Class  of  ornament 

Cleopatra 

Color 

Coloring,  Arabian 

"         Chinese 

"       -Egyptian 

"         in  Moorish  ornament.. 
"         Moorish,  System  of.... 
"         Rules  of,  in  Indian  fab- 
rics.  

Colors,  Blending  of,  in   Moorish 

ornament 

"        of  Egyptians 

Column,  Tuscan 

Combination  of  elements 

Comparison  of  Egypt  and 

Greece 

of    Greek  and 

Roman  orders 

of  Indian  and 

Persian  art 

of   Persian    and 
Arabian  art... 

Compasses 

Composite  order 

Composition 

Conditions  influencing  architec- 
ture  


n 
H 

n 

4* 

M 

M 


M 

51 
19 

80 
98 
BO 

8 
fit 

1 
SO 

n 
1 

8 

80 
M 
8 
74 
68 
M 
90 
M 


Sec.  Page. 

Conic  sections 8  60 

Consistency  in  design 3  i 

of    Egyptian    orna- 
ment   3  29 

"             "    Moorish    orna- 
ment   4  87 

Construction  and  decoration  in 

Moorish  art 4  88 

"             of  cartouch 2  26 

"             "  Moorish  geomet- 
rical ornament  4  92 

Constructive  ornament 3  80 

Conventionalism 3  6 

o  f    Egyptian 

ornament 3  29 

"               of   Moorish   or- 
nament   4  88 

Corbel 4  124 

Corinthian  base ,  4  16 

"           capital 4  15 

"          order 3  64 

"               "     Roman 4  27 

Cornice 4  7 

Corona 4  7 

Cy ma  recta 8  63 

"      reversa 3  63 

Cymatium 4  8 


D.  Sec.  Page. 
Decorated  capitals,  Characteris- 
tics of 

"         period 

Decoration  and  construction  in 

Moorish  art 

"  Arabian 

"  Elements  of 

"           General  rules  of  sur- 
face in 

"  Meaning  of 

Principles  of 

Decorations,  Painted  Roman .... 

Decorative  art 

"          ornament  . . 


"          theory  exhibited   by 

the  savage 

Definition  of  a  drawing 


"  "  axis. 

"  "  cartouch 

"  "double  ordinate.... 

"  "ordinate 

"          "  pitch 

"          "sketching 

"  "spotting 

Derivation  of  Moorish  art 

Design,  Adherence  to  old 

"  Consistencv  in. . . 


109 
100 

83 
72 
2 

8 
1 
2 
32 
6 

30 
35 

12 

1 

2 

45 

26 

45 

45 

45 

1 

13 
80 
57 


INDEX. 


Sec. 

Design,  Orders  of 8 

Details,  German  Gothic 4 

Development  of   Arabian  orna- 
ment   4 

"             "    Assyrian  art..  3 

"             "    fireplace 5 

"  "    Romanesque 

style 4 

Devices,  Symbolic 3 

Diapers,  Early  English 4 

"             "      French 4 

Disk,  Winged 3 

Dividers 1 

Donatello 5 

Donjon 4 

Doric  entablature 4 

"              "            4 

"     order 3 

Double  ordinate,  Definition  of. ..  1 

Draftsman  at  work,  Position  of  2 

Drawing  board 1 

1 

2 


Definition  of. 
Freehand. .. 


"         Geometrical 

"         Ink 

"         Instrumental 

"         Mechanical 

"         paper 

"         pen,  How  to  sharpen.. 
"          plate,  Applied  Design.. 

-'  "       Brush  Work 

"  "       Flowersand  Con- 

ventionalized 

Leaves 2 

"  "      Linear   Elements      2 

"  "      Natural  Leaves. .      2 

"  "      Surfaces   and 

Solids 2 

Drawing  plates,  Preliminary  di- 
rections for. . .      1 

"  "        Size  of 1 

Durer,  Albert 5 

Dutch  influence  in  English  Re- 
naissance   ....      5 


Page. 
58 
121 


47 
33 

33 

3 

113 

119 

27 

9 

6 

123 

e 

24 
64 

45 
4 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 

13 
1 
1 

10 
14 
70 
51 


•II 
9 
82 


E.  Sec.  Page. 
Early  English  capitals,  Chacter- 

"                          istics  of 4  109 

diapers 4  113 

"            "        period 4  100 

"        spandrels 4  112 

"      French  capitals 4  11G 

diapers 4  119 

"        periods 4  116 

Echinus 3  03 

Effect  of  invention  of  printing. ..  D  5 


Sec.  Page. 

Effect  of  traditional  styles 3  11 

Egypt  and  Greece,  Comparison 

of 3  52 

Egyptian  alphabet,  Antique 5  63 

Heavy  an- 
tique   5  69 

"               "          Light    an- 
tique   5  65 

"         art 3  14 

"         coloring 3  46 

"         colors 3  46 

"         ornament 3  14 

"         Antiquity    of  3  15 

"                "         Classes  of....  3  30 
"                "         Consistency 

of 3  SO 

"         Convention- 
alism of....  3  29 
"                "         Influence  of 

Nile  on 3  14 

"         Influence  of 

religion   on  3  16 

"         temple 3  17 

"               "        Interior  of 3  19 

"              ."        Plan  of 3  22 

Elements,  Combination  of 3  3 

"          of  decoration 3  2 

Elizabethan  ornament,  Charac- 
teristics of 5  54 

Ellipse 3  61 

"      How  to  draw  an 1  43 

"         "      "      "       "freehand..  2  20 

Empire  period 5  25 

England  and  Holland,  Political 

ties  of 5  53 

"         Introduction  of  Rerais- 

"             sance  art  into 5  3 

"          Introduction  of  Renais- 
sance into 5  52 

"          Revival  of  antique  art  in  5  55 

English  and  German  Gothic 4  100 

"        Renaissance 5  51 

"                  "            Dutch  in- 
fluence in  5  53 

Entablature,  Doric 4  6 

"             Roman  Doric 4  24 

"            Tuscan 4  20 

Epitithidas .•  4  5 

Equilateral  triangle,  How  to 

draw  an 1  36 

Erechtheum 3  71 

Etruscan  art 3  77 

"         ornament 3  77 

Evolution  of  Gothic  art 4  99 

"             "         "       ornament..  4  108 

Examples  of  Byzantine  style 4  42 

Expression  of    taste    in    savage 

ornament . .           3  11 


INDEX. 


XI 


F.  Sec. 
Fabric.s,  Indian,  Rules  of  color- 
ing    4 

Fall  of  Roman  Empire 4 

Feudal  system 4 

Fiefs 4 

Fillet 8 

Fireplace,  Development  of 5 

Five  orders  of  architecture 4 

Flamboyant  capitals 4 

period 4 

Fleur-de-lis 4 

Flowers  and  Conventionalized 

Leaves,  Drawing  plate 2 

Foliated  terminations  in  Italian 

Renaissance 5 

Fontainebleau 5 

France,  Introduction  of  Renais- 
sance art  into 5 

Freehand  drawing 1 

"               "         2 

French  art,  Heraldry  in 5 

"      conception    of    Roman 

ideas 5 

"        furniture,  Lack  of  sym- 
metry in...  5 

"                "          Style  of 5 

"       Gothic  art 4 

"       Renaissance 5 

"                             Periods  of. .  5 
"            Rapidity  of 
transition 

of 5 

"                  "            style,  Pur- 
ity of 5 

"        Roman  alphabet 5 

*'        window  tracery 4 

Fret 3 

Frieze 4 

Furniture,  French,  Lack  of  sym- 
metry in...  5 
"         Style  of 5 


Page. 
65 


63 

33 

2 

117 
116 
128 


14 

47 

3 

1 

1 

34 

29 

49 
48 
116 
24 
24 


24 

4 

71 

105 

37 

6 

49 
48 


G.  Sec.  Page. 
General  rules  of  surface  decora- 
tion   3  8 

Geometrical  drawing 1  1 

"  ornament,  Moorish, 

Construction  of. .  4  92 
"           outlines  of  natural 

form 2  32 

German  and  English  Gothic 4  100 

"        Gothic  details 4  121 

"        Renaissance 5  51 

"  "  Influence 

of  Italian 

art  in  —  5  51 

Ghiberti 5  7 

Giacopo  Tatti  Sansovino 5  22 


Globe,  Winged 8 

Gothic  alphabet 5 

"       art 

"        "Evolution  of 4 

"        "  in  France 

"        "    "  Italy 4 

"        "  Influence   of    religion 

in 

"       English  and  German 

"       forms,  Italian  aversion  to 

"       German  details 4 

"       Misinterpretation  of 

"       ornament 

"  "          Evolution  of.. 

"  "          Origin  of 

Greece  and  Egypt,  Comparison 

of 3 

Grecian  volutes,  How  to  draw. . .      2 

Greco-Roman  art 8 

"       ornament 3 

Greek  and  Roman  orders,  Com- 
parison of 4 

"      architecture 3 

"     art 3 

"      bases 8 

"      Corinthian  order 4 

"      Doric  order 4 

"      lily 3 

"      orders 4 

"      ornament 3 

"          Representative 

types  of 3 

"      sculpture 3 

Greeks,  Character  of  the 8 

Guilloche 8 

Guttae...  4 


H.  Sec. 

Hagia  Sophia 4 

Hall,  Hypostyle 3 

"              "         at  Karnak 3 

"      of  assembly 8 

Harmachis 3 

Heating  of  ancient  castles. 4 

Heavy  antique  Egyptian  alpha- 
bet    5 

Helix,  How  to  draw 1 

Heraldry 4 

"        in  French  art 5 

Historic  lettering 5 

"         ornament,  Modern  use 

of 5 

I'  "          Object  of 

studying. .  5 
"           Val  ue    of 

study  of..  3 

History  of  ornament 2 

Holbein 5 


Sec. 

Page. 

3 

27 

5 

75 

4 

99 

4 

99 

4 

116 

4 

106 

4 

99 

4 

100 

5 

6 

4 

121 

4 

121 

4 

99 

4 

108 

4 

89 

52 
20 
79 
79 

20 
54 
52 
59 
14 

3 
67 

2 
52 

56 
56 
52 
70 

8 

Page 
40 
17 
23 
17 
25 
126 


46 
127 
34 

61 

59 

56 

13 

1 

52 


Xll 


INDEX. 


Sec.  Page. 
Holland  and  England,  Political 

ties  of 5       58 

Horizontal   straight  lines,  How 

to  draw,  freehand 2       12 

Horus 3       26 

How  to  bisect  a  given  angle 1        33 

"      "  construct   any  polygon, 

its  sides  being  given. ..      1       41 
"      "  divide  a  given  line  into 
any  number  of    equal 

parts 1       34 

"      "  draw 2         3 

"      "       "    a  circle  freehand. ..      2       19 

"      "        "     "helix 1        46 

"      "       "    "horizontal 

straight  line...      2       12 

"      "       "    "parabola 1        45 

"      "       "    "  parallelogram —      1        37 
"      "       "    "perpendicular 
straight    line 

freehand 2       10 

"      "       "    "  perpendicular  to 

a  straight  line. .      1       29 
"      "       "    "  straight  line  par- 
allel to  a  given 

line 1       30 

"      "       "    "volute 2       20 

"      "       "  an  ellipse 1       43 

"      "       "    "        "      freehand..      2       20 
"      "       "    "  equilateral    tri- 
angle       1       36 

"      "       "    "  oval 1       43 

"      "       "    "      "    freehand....      2       21 
"      "       "   oblique  lines    free- 
hand        2        12 

"  "  find  arc  of  circle  equal 
to  given  straight 

line 1       42 

"  "  "  a  straight  line  equal 
to  given  arc  of  cir- 
cle   1  42 

"    the    center  of  an 

arc 1        38 

"      "  inscribe  a  hexagon  in  a 

circle 1        39 

"         "        "   pentagon  in  a 

circle 1        40 

"   square  in  a 

circle 1        38 

"         "       an  octagon  in  a 

circle 1        40 

"      "  lay  off  a  given  angle 1        36 

"  sharpen  drawing  pen 1        14 

"  study  ornament 3       14 

Hyperbola 3        61 

Method  of  drawing.          3       62 
Method  of  drawing 

tangent  to 3       63 


Sec.  Page. 

Hypostyle  hall 3        17 

"    at  Karnak...  3       23 


I.  Sec. 

Idealism  and  Chinese  ornament      4 
Indian  and    Persian    art    com- 
pared       4 

"        art 4 

"         •"   Lack  of  progress- 

iveness  in 4 

"        fabrics,  Rules  of  color- 
ing      '4 

"         ornament 4 

"               "         Characteris- 
tics of 4 

Influence  of  architecture 3 

"          "   Italian  art  and  Ger- 
man Renaissance     5 
"         "   Mohammedanism..      4 

"         "   nature 3 

"         "   religion 3 

"          "          "       in  Egyptian 

ornament      3 
"         "         "      in    Gothic 

art 4 

"         "  the  Church 4 

"         "     "    Nile    on    Egyp- 
tian    orna- 

ment 3 

Influences  affecting  different 

styles  of  art 5 

Ingenuity  of  Byzantine  orna- 
ment   

Inking 

Instrumental  drawing 

Instruments  and  materials 

Intention  of  Renaissance  artists 

Interior  of  Egyptian  temple 

Intricacy  of  Celtic  ornament. . . . 

Introduction  of  Renaissance  art 

into  England. . 

"   Renaissance  art 

into  France... 

"   Renai  ssan  ce 

into  England.. 

Invention  of  printing,  Effect  of. . 

Ionic  architrave 

"     order. . . 


"  "  Roman 

Ironwork,  Renaissance 

Irregular  curves 

Isis 

Italian  art  and  literature 

"         "    Roman  influence  on.. 

"       aversion  to  Gothic  forms 

"       Gothic  art 

"       Renaissance . . . 


Page. 
60 

79 

64 


84 


106 
4 


INDEX. 


Xlll 


Sec.  Page. 

Italian  Renaissance,  Foliated  ter- 
minations 
in  ...........  5        14 

'•'  "  French  ideas 

of  ..........      5       29 

"  Origin  of  .....      5         4 

"  Scrollwork 


in 


Value    of,  to 
the  design- 


Italy, Renaissance  art  in  .........      5 


.1.  Sec.  Page. 

Japanese  art  ......................  4  63 

"         brush  ...................  2  53 

"         ornament  ..............  4  59 

K.  Sec.  Page. 

Karnak,  Hyposty  le  hall  at  .......  3  23 

"        Temple  of  ...............  3  23 


L. 

Labyrinth 

Lack  of  progressiveness  in  In- 
dian art 

"      "    symmetry  in  French 

furniture 

Laws  of  foliated  ornament 

"      "  nature — 


Sec. 
3 


Lead  pencils 

Lengthening  bar 

Lettering i 

"        Historic 5 

Light  antique   Egyptian   alpha- 
bet    5 

Lily,  Greek 3 

Linear  Elements,  Drawing  plate  2 

Literature  and  art,  Italian 5 

Lotus 3 

Lysicrates,  Monument  of 4 


Page. 
37 

64 

49 
22 
23 
57 
10 
6 
19 
til 

65 

67 

9 


Sec.  Page. 

Mohammedan  decoration 4  72 

Mohammedanism  in  Arabian  art  4  70 

Influence  of...  4  70 

Moldings,  Classic 3  50 

Monument  of  Lysicrates 4  14 

Monreale,  Cathedral  of 4  55 

Moorish  art 4  80 

"         "  Construction    and 

decoration  in 4  83 

"         "  Derivation  of 4  80 

"         "  Primary  colors  in 4  85 

"        coloring,  System  of 4  90 

"       geometrical    ornament, 

Construction  of 4  93 

"       ornament 4  80 

"  "         Blending  of 

colors  in 4  91 

"              "         Characteris- 
tics of 4  81 

"               "         Coloring  in 4  89 

"  "         Consistency 

of 4  87 

"               "         Conventional- 
ism in 4  88 

Mummy...-. 3  35 

Mutules 4  7 

V.                  Sec.  Page. 
Natural  form,  Geometrical  out- 
line of 2  32 

"         Leaves,  Drawing  plate  2  32 

Nature,  Influence  of 3  9 


M.                   Sir.  Page. 

Meaning  of  decoration 3  1 

"          "order 4  2 

"          "  ornament 3  1 

Mechanical  drawing 1  1 

Medieval  Roman  alphabet 5  69 

Metope 4  6 

Mezzo  rilievo 5  7 

Michael  Angelo 5  21 

Misinterpretation  of  Gothic 4  121 

Mode  of  living  in  ancient  cas- 
tles   4  126 

Modern  use  of  historic  ornament  5  59 

Modillion I  27 

Modules...  4  8 


Obelisks 

Object  of  studying  historic  or- 
nament   

Oblique    lines,    How    to    draw, 

freehand 

Octagon,  How  to  inscribe,  in  a 

circle 

Octagonal   staircase  of  Chateau 

de  Blois 

Old  designs.  Adherence  to 

"    English  alphabet 

Order,  Composite 

"       Corinthian 

"       Doric 

"       Greek-Corinthian 

"       Greek-Doric 

"       Ionic... 


Sec. 
3 


"       Meaning  of 

"       Roman-Corinthian. 

"  "        Doric 

"  "       Ionic 

"       Tuscan 

Orders,  Architectural 


Page. 
21 

56 
12 
40 


BO 
64 

M 
3 

•    : 

8 


XIV 

Orders,  architectural,  Meaning 
of  

.V-  ',  . 
4 

4 
4 
3 
4 
1 
4 

4 

4 
4 

4 
5 
5 
3 
8 
3 
4 

4 
4 
3 
4 
4 
4 

4 

4 
4 
4 
4 
4 

4 

4 
4 
4 

4 
3 

4 

4 
3 
3 
3 

3 
3 

3 

INDI 

Page. 
< 

2 

20 
2 
58 
17 
45 
59 

39 

59 
95 

39 
4 
1 
10 
10 
9 
69 

69 
59 
37 
101 
39 
95 

96 

96 
97 
95 
98 
31 

78 

76 
59 
60 
30 
1 
52 

78 

79 
30 
30 
14 

15 
30 

29 

:x. 

Drnament,  Egyptian,  Conven- 
tional- 
ism of... 
"          Influence 
of  Nile 
on  

Sec. 
8 
8 

8 

5 
8 

8 
4 
4 

8 
8 

5 
5 
3 

a 

8 

4 

4 

4 
4 
8 
4 

4 

4 
4 

4 
4 
4 

4 

4 
4 
8 
3 
3 

4 

Page. 
29 
14 

16 

54 

77 

11 
99 
108 
79 
52 

56 
59 
56 

13 
2 
14 
64 

65 

55 
59 
1 
80 

91 

81 
89 

87 
88 
80 

92 

39 

78 
79 
82 
9 

59 

"       Comparison     of     Greek 

"       Greek  

"       of  design  

"          Influence 
of      re- 
ligion on 
"          Elizabethan,   Char- 
acteristics of  

Oriental  art  

"         influence  in   Byzantine 
art  

"         people,  Characteristics 
of    

"           Etruscan  

'•          Expression    of   taste 

Origin  of  Celtic  ornament  

"        "  Gothic  and  Byzantine 
ornament  

"          Gothic  

"          Gothic,  Evolution  of 
"          Greco-Roman  

"        "  Italian  Renaissance... 
"        "  Renaissance  art  

"           Greek  

"        "  set  styles  

"       Representa- 
tive types  of 
"           historic,  Modern  use 
of  

"        "  tatooing  

Ornament,  Ancient  

"          Arabian  

"         Develop- 
ment  of..  . 
"          Asiatic  

"                  "         Object       of 
studying 
"          Value        of 
study  of.. 
"           History  of  

"           Assyrian  
"           Ball-flower  

"           Byzantine  

"           How  to  study  

"          Celtic  

"           Indian  

"       Animal  forms 

"       Character  is- 

"       Characteris- 
tics of 

"           Ingenuity  of  Byzan- 

"      Intricacy  of.  .. 
"       Origin  of. 

Japanese  

"           meaning  of  

"       S3Tmbolism   in 
Character  of  Roman 
"          Characteristics  of 
Persian  

"        Blending  of 
colors  in  .  . 
"        Characteris- 
tics  of  
"        Coloring    in 
"                  "        Consistency 
of...   . 

"          Characteristics  of 
Turkish  

"          Chinese  

"        and  idealism 
"          Class  of  

"        Convention- 
alism in..  . 
"        Derivation 
of  

"          Classic  

"          Comparison  of   Per- 
sian and  Arabian.. 
Comparison  of    Per- 
sian and  Indian.  .  .  . 
"          Constructive  

"       geometrical, 
Construc- 
tion of  
"           Origin  of  Gothic  and 

''           Decorative  

"           Egyptian  

Antiquity 
of  

"           Pompeian  

"          Classes   of 
"          Consist- 
ency of.. 

"           Primitive  

"          Primitivenessof 
Chinese... 

INDEX. 


XV 


Ornament,  Renaissance 5 

"          Representative 3 

"              3 

"          Roman 4 

"          Romanesque 4 

"          Style  in 8 

"          Surface 3 

"          Turkish 4 

"          Type  of 3 

"          Western 4 

Osiris 3 

Oval,  How  to  draw 1 

"         "     "      "    an,  freehand  2 

P.  Sec. 

Painted  Roman  decorations 4 

Papyrus 8 

Parabola 8 

"         Ho w  to  draw  a 1 

Parallel  to  a  given  straight  line, 

How  to  draw  a  line 1 

Parallelogram,  How  to  draw  a. .  1 

Parthenon 8 

Pedestal,  Roman-Doric 4 

"         Tuscan 4 

Pencils 1 

"       recommended 2 

Pens  recommended 2 

Pentagon,  How  to  inscribe,  with- 
in a  circle 1 

People,  Types  of 3 

Periods  of  French  Renaissance..  5 
Perpendicular  characters,  Char- 
acteristics of...  4 

period 4 

straight  line,  How 
to  draw,  free- 
hand   2 

to  a  straight  line, 

How  to  draw  a  1 
Persian  and  Arabian  art  com- 
pared   4 

"        art 4 

Persian  ornament 4 

"                "          Characteris- 
tics of 4 

Perspective  of  circles 2 

Pitch,  Definition  of 1 

Plan  of  Egyptian  temple 3 

Plant  analysis 2 

Political   ties    of    England   and 

Holland 5 

Polychromy 8 

Polygon,  How  to  construct  a 1 

Pompeian  art 8 

"         ornament 8 

"                  "           8 

Position  of  draftsman 2 


Sec.  Page.                                                               Sec.  Page. 

1        Preliminary  directions  for  draw- 

80           ing  plates 1  26 

33        Primary  colors  in  Moorish  art...  4  85 

1        Primitive  ornament 3  9 

33        Primitiveness  of  Chinese  orna- 

30  ment 4  59 

66       Principles  of  decoration 3  2 

76       Printing,  Invention  of 5  5 

31  Propylon 3  18 

95       Protractor 1  18 

26       Purity    of   French    Renaissance 

43  style 5  4 

21  Pylons 3  17 

Page.                                        R.                   Sec.  Page. 

32  Rake 4  8 

26        Ramesseum 3  22 

60        Rapidity  of  transition  of  French 

45           Renaissance 5  24 

Rayonnant  capitals 4  117 

30                  "          period 4  116 

37        Religion,  Influence  of 3  5 

55  "  "  "  in  Gothic 

23  art 4  99 

19        Renaissance  art 5  1 

10                  "              "in  Italy 5  3 

4  "  Introduction  of, 

8                                          into  England..  5  3 
"              "  Introduction  of, 

40  into  France...  5  3 
26                   "               "  Origin  of 5  1 

24  artists,  Intention 

of 5  2 

110  "  Dutch  influence  in 

100                                      English 5  52 

"             English 5  51 

"            French 5  24 

10                   "                  "         Periods  of  5  24 

"                  "         Rapidity 
29                                                    of  transi- 
tion in ...  5  24 

78                   "             German 5  51 

78  "  "        Influence 

78  of  Ger- 

man art 

78  on 5  51 

28  "  Introduction  of, 

45                                       into  England 5  52 

22  "             ironwork 5  18 

44  Italian 5  4 

"            ornament 5  1 

58                                 period,  Scope  of. . .  5  2 

72                   "             Venetian 5  16 

41  Representative  ornament 3  80 

79  "  types  of  Greek 

79                                         ornament 8  56 

83        Revival  of  antique  art  in   Eng- 

4            land 5  65 


XVI 


INDEX. 


Sec.  Page. 

Revival  of  classic  style 5  2 

Rococo  period 5  25 

Roman  alphabet.  Medieval 5  69 

"       and  Greek  orders,  Com- 
parison of 4  20 

"       Corinthian  order 4  27 

"       domination,    system    of 

building  under 4  34 

"       Doric  order 4  21 

"      entablature 4  24 

"      pedestal 4  23 

"       Empire,  Fall  of 4  33 

"       influences  on  Italian  art  5  6 

"       Ionic  order 4  24 

"       orders 4  17 

"       ornament 4  1 

Character  of.  .  4  31 

"       painted  decorations. ..   .  4  32 

Romanesque  art 4  33 

"    Sculpture  in.. .  4  58 

ornament 4  33 

style,    Develop- 
ment of 4  33 

Roman  acanthus 4  31 

Rubbers  recommended 2  4 

Rules  of  coloring  in  Indian  fab- 
rics    4  65 

"      to  be  observed 2  4 

Ruling  pen 1  11 

S.                     Sec.  Page. 

Sacred  bark 3  36 

Saint  Mark's  church 4  51 

Sansovino,  Giacopo  Tatti 5  22 

Savage,  Decorative    theory  ex- 
hibited by  the 3  12 

"         ornament,     Expression 

of  taste  in 3  11 

Scale 1  17 

Scarabeus 3  28 

Scarcity  of  Chinese  architecture  4  61 

Scope  of  Renaissance  period 5  2 

Scotia 3  63 

Scroll 3  41 

Scrollwork    in    Italian    Renais- 
sance   5  12 

Sculpture,  Assyrian 3  48 

Greek 3  56 

in  Byzantine  art 4  58 

"   Romanesque  art  . .  4  58 

Sections,  Conic 3  60 

Sekos .- 3  17 

Set  styles,  Origin  of 3  10 

Shaft 4  12 

Size  of  drawing  plates 1  26 

Sketching,  Definition  of 1  \ 

Soffit 4  7 

Spandrels,  Early  English 4  112 


See. 

Sphinx 3 

Spotting,  Definition  of 2 

Square,  To  inscribe  a,  within  a 

circle 1 

Staircase  of  Chateau  de  Blois —  5 

Standard  forms  in  Chinese  art..  4 
Straight  line  equal  to  given  arc 
of  circle,  How  to 

find 1 

"  "     horizontal,  How  to 

draw,  freehand . .  2 
"           "     How  to    divide    a, 
in  any  number  of 

equal  parts 1 

"  "     To  bisect  a 1 

Style  and  ornament 3 

"      Development    of    Roman- 
esque   4 

"      Examples  of  Byzantine. ...  4 

"      of  French  furniture 5 

Styles,  Origin  of  set 3 

"        Effect  of  traditional 3 

Stylobate 4 

Surface    decoration,     General 

rules  of 3 

"          ornament 3 

Surfaces   and   Solids,    Drawing 

plate 2 

Symbolic  devices 3 

Symbolism  in  Celtic  ornament..  4 

System,  Feudal. 4 

"         of   building  under  Ro- 
man domination..  4 
"         "    Moorish  coloring 4 

T.  Sec. 

Tatooing,  Origin  of 3 

Temple,  Egyptian 3 

"  "          Plan  of...  3 


of  Athena  Polias. 


"         "  Karnak 

Thoth 

Three  great  laws  of  nature 

Thumb  molding 4 

"        tacks 1 

To  bisect  a  straight  line 1 

Torus 3 

Tower  of  the  winds 3 

Tracery 4 

"       French 4 

Traditional  styles,  Effects  of 3 

Triangle,    equilateral,    How    to 

draw 1 

Triangles 1 

Triglyph 4 

T  square. 1 

Turkish  art...           4 


Page. 
25 
13 


12 


88 

80 

88 
& 

48 
10 

11 
8 


66 

24 
3 

98 
121 

34 

90 

Page. 

10 

17 

22 

70 
9 

23 

26 

57 
6 

10 

28 

63 

65 
101 
105 

11 

36 
3 


INDKX. 


xvii 


Sec.  Page. 

Turkish  ornament 4  70 

"               "        Characteris- 
tics of 4  76 

Tuscan  column 4  20 

"       entablature 4  20 

order 4  19 

"       pedestal 4  19 

Type  of  ornament 3  31 

Types  of  people 3  26 

V.  .&•<:.  /V<?. 

Valois  period 5  24 

Value  of  Italian  Renaissance  to 

the  designer 5  10 

"       "    study  of  historic  orna- 
ment   3  13 

Venetian  Renaissance 5  16 

Versailles...  5  47 


Sec.  Page. 

Vignola 4        17 

Vitruvius 5         6 

Volute 4        12 

"       How  to  draw  a 2       20 

Vf.  Sec.  Page. 

Wall  decoration,  Byzantine 4  4< 

Chateau    tie 

Blots 5  42 

Western  art 4  95 

"        ornament 4  95 

Window  tracery,  French 4  105 

Wingeddisk 3  27 

"        globe 3  27 

55.  Sec,  Page. 
Zenith  of  architectural  develop- 
ment..                                           4      115 


